Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.6alpha first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk Image Image talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Portal Portal talk Anarchism 780754 737235 724233 771308 1920136 1249918 381804 1332770 1725235 1325940 1228884 76911 903360 80676 222074 17865 49938 98514 98405 2052697 14936 416146 1600135 218185 1376284 1548081 773960 1023 23040 234984 354767 216664 90492 2594651 37235 32705 11175 46112 11887 164556 7615 51067 13209 30365 5760 66540 37142 29372 252342 936385 430320 98441 18836 2934 308392 79131 2023 77981 57916 65806 51074 171171 31718 1607411 9567 42400 75358 23627 48134 70364 19892 126588 34568 4163 13540 14379 741901 392526 379855 34569 142615 35416 11188 58031 195212 639347 220986 49944 34699 274046 34666 145172 34786 51483 3072819 2242 16743 58198 743785 12674 60585 3271 34768 1915832 17531 448204 2861848 1078 2045426 90700 1011229 36948 888498 156371 325726 206757 90071 1509555 26700 9236 252404 34714 9764 420350 1324454 97325 268248 31750 28966 39443 6822 4705 112282 22063 965332 2274182 48852 17629 1799997 26056 146704 2963 513246 25964 47628 13456 400776 176461 30636 42217 6886 105865 37094 18280 371351 178755 156224 10581 155134 838826 80014 37062 595997 25762 805586 97323 519047 11466 1088252 294067 105976 25614 38076 105004 29462 105860 55592 33663 23490 671799 18524 143782 1486408 1703636 25998 24939 631216 13998 6258 81638 748619 19834 1339886 11855 1095706 12229 24956 44282 242094 409463 1670509 960944 743365 32591 32587 225621 32926 1129763 4927 287899 26295 306428 239564 87315 11054 173805 5277 4443 97482 34545 34555 31717 23037 7792 76972 253228 5166 33800 228724 373860 818252 57521 1013087 172109 45434 170492 178776 2287742 666906 16779 54361 1311254 2297801 214091 44443 93816 266137 33873 59755 172185 172543 312622 50276 303522 102262 303430 29816 9959 30931 8824 522036 1446985 222427 37314 24222 14539 48148 19976 843107 24539 54257 53723 10922 22221 32013 10638 11875 17506 32851 44488 15340 162565 14858 26787 58623 28431 2557010 24902 622304 1547266 260679 3017845 12557 11109 75469 26779 2996055 348425 151526 1324890 1578151 33158 885050 228698 32611 21139 199636 846983 1370157 1113966 18048 808418 1033452 1095051 26775 170100 1282733 1490596 59134 34767 34845 34724 88459 34673 311205 34655 34553 805396 156343 269812 1653614 689404 143885 157393 178320 1433310 673063 3081655 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Anarchism&action=edit http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/WhatIsProperty/ http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchists/malatesta/rev_haste.html http://pdx.iww.org/preamble.html http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~stefan/culture.html http://www.postanarchism.org/ http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html http://anarchism.ws/ http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&ItemID=4796 http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html http://fuckthevote.org/TheEthicsofVoting http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/berkman/comanarchism/whatis_toc.html http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/godwin/PJfrontpiece.html http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm http://www.takver.com/history/melb/maa01.htm http://www.iww.org/ http://www.retailworkers.org/ http://www.iwa-ait.org/ :This article is about anarchism, an anti-authoritarian philosophy that rejects capitalism. While this is the most widespread form of the anarchist tradition, there are other political philosophies that make alternative use of the term. For anarchism favoring capitalist economic relations see anarcho-capitalism. Anarchism is a generic term describing various political philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of all forms of social hierarchy. In place of centralized political structures, private ownership of the means of production, and exploitative economic institutions such as rent and profit, these movements favor social relations based upon voluntary interaction and self-management, and aspire to a society characterised by autonomy and freedom. These philosophies use anarchy to mean a society based on voluntary interaction of free individuals, and the idea that communities and individuals have a say in decisions to the degree that they are affected by their outcomes. While opposition to coercive institutions and socially constructed hierarchies are primary tenets of anarchism, anarchism is also a positive vision of how a voluntary society would work. There is considerable variation amongst anarchist philosophies. Opinions differ in various areas, such as whether violence should be employed to foster anarchism, what type of economic system should exist, questions on the environment and industrialism, and anarchists' roles in other movements. The terms "anarchy" and "anarchism" are derived from the Greek ("without archons (rulers)"). Thus "anarchism," in its most general meaning, is the belief that rulership is unnecessary and should be abolished. The word "anarchy", as most anarchists use it, does not imply chaos or anomie, but rather a stateless society with voluntary social relations.

Precursors of anarchism

Primitive cultures

Anarcho-primitivists assert that, for the longest period before recorded history, human society was organized on anarchist principles. They point to the egalitarian structure of hunter-gatherer bands, to the lack of division of labour and accumulated wealth, and the lack of decreed law, as indicators of such primitive anarchy.

Philosophical traces

Some anarchists have embraced Taoism, which developed in Ancient China, as a source of anarchistic attitudes . Similarly, anarchistic tendencies can be traced to the philosophers of Ancient Greece, such as Zeno, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, and Aristippus, who said that the wise should not give up their liberty to the state . Later movements such as Stregheria in the 1300's, the Free Spirit in the Middle Ages, the Anabaptists, The Diggers, and the Ranters, have also expounded ideas that have been interpreted as anarchist.

Ancient Greece

The first known usage of the word anarchy appears in the play Seven Against Thebes by Aeschylus, dated 467 BC. There, Antigone openly refuses to abide by the rulers' decree to leave her brother Polyneices' body unburied, as punishment for his participation in the attack on Thebes, saying that "even if no one else is willing to share in burying him I will bury him alone and risk the peril of burying my own brother. Nor am I ashamed to act in defiant opposition to the rulers of the city (ekhous apiston tênd anarkhian polei)". Ancient Greece also saw the first western instance of anarchism as a philosophical ideal, in the form of the stoic philosopher Zeno of Citium, who was, according to Kropotkin, "[t]he best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece". As summarized by Kropotkin, Zeno "repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual". Within Greek philosophy, Zeno's vision of a free community without government is opposed to the state-Utopia of Plato's Republic. Zeno argued that although the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads humans to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct sociability. Like many modern anarchists, he believed that if people follow their instincts, they will have no need of law, courts, or police, no temples and no public worship, and use no money (a gift economy taking the place of the exchanges). Zeno's beliefs have only reached us as fragmentary quotations.

The Anabaptists

The Anabaptists of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. Bertrand Russell, in his History of Western Philosophy, writes that the Anabaptists "repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by the Holy Spirit...[f]rom this premise they arrive at communism...." The novel Q by Luther Blissett provides a fictional depiction of this movement and its revolutionary ideology. Gerrard Winstanley of The Diggers, who published a pamphlet calling for communal ownership and social and economic organization in small agrarian communities in the 17th century, is considered another of the forerunners of modern anarchism.

History of anarchism

Justice against the state

William Godwin, in An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (1793) wrote what would become core anarchist critiques of government, economics, and society; though he did not use the word anarchism, some today regard him as the "founder of philosophical anarchism" By "political justice" Godwin meant "the adoption of any principle of morality and truth into the practice of a community," and his characteristically anarchist conclusion was that government in fact inhibits rather than fosters justice. Godwin's philosophy was optimistic about the potential for human beings to develop and conduct social relations on the basis of reason and consent. He believed that there are no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil. He considered that "our virtues and our vices may be traced to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice would be extirpated from the world." The control of man by man in general, and the institution of government in particular, are detrimental to human development. "Government by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original mind." Godwin's masterpiece was published in 1793, in the last stages of the French Revolution. The themes of his work, some of which he later retracted, would become central to the future development of anarchism. But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term 'anarchiste' was known only as an insult hurled by the bourgeois Girondins at more elements in the revolution. (Some of whom, the Parisian Sans-culottes, are seen by many as the immediate predecessors of working-class anarchism.)

What is property?

Pierre Proudhon (1809-1865) It's commonly held that it wasn't until Pierre-Joseph Proudhon published " What is Property?" in 1840 that the term "anarchist" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In " What is Property?" Proudhon answers with the famous accusation "Property is theft." He opposed the institution of property (propriete) involving full 'rights of use and abuse' as it exists in capitalism; but he supported a more limited right of 'possession' (possession) by individuals of the means and produce of their own labour. Proudhon's vision of anarchy (which he called mutualism (mutuellisme)) thus involved a non-coercive exchange economy where individuals would trade the produce of their labour. This would be a market system without profit; goods would be traded on the basis of the labour time; a national bank would lend without interest to support production. Without property interests to protect, the state would become superfluous. Proudhon generally opposed violent expropriation of property; instead he tended to advocate schemes (including the formation of an interest-free bank) whereby workers would create mutual organisations that could come to supplant capitalism and render the state superfluous. Proudhon's ideas began to exert some influence within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the Revolution of 1848 in France. However authoritarian socialist tendencies such as Blanquism were a stronger force in Proudhon's own time. Proudhon's work on property raised a central issue in the future development of anarchism. The question of property, and its place in an anarchist society, is sometimes seen as dividing anarchism thereafter into two major streams or tendencies which can loosely be called 'individualism' and 'collectivism'.

The International - Anarchism becomes a mass movement

In Europe, a period of harsh reaction followed the widespread revolutionary activity of 1848. The next major phase of revolutionary activity began almost twenty years later with the founding of the International Workingmen's Association, sometimes called the 'First International, in London in 1864. The International Workingmen's Association, at its founding, was an alliance of diverse socialist groups, including French Mutualists, English Owenites, and others. Over its short life it grew into a major movement, with local federations in many countries developing strong bases of working class activism. But at the same time the IWA began to polarise into two camps, with Karl Marx and Mikhail Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Both sides had a stated common aim (stateless communism), and common political opponents (the ruling class). But each was critical of the other, and the conflict between the two groups intensified. Perhaps the clearest differences emerged over proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The anarchists grouped around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation." Marxist thinking, at that time, focused on parliamentary activity. (Particularly when the new German Empire of 1871 became the first country to introduce manhood suffrage, leading many German socialists to focus their energies within the then Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany.) Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as authoritarian, and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the ruling class they had fought against (notably in his Statism and Anarchy.) In 1872, the conflict in the First International climaxed with the expulsion of Bakunin and those who had become known as the "Bakuninists" when they were outvoted by the Marxists at the Hague Congress. This is often cited as the origin of the long-running conflict between anarchists and Marxists. From then on, the authoritarian and libertarian currents of socialism had distinct organisations, at various points including rival 'internationals'. Unfortunately, many of the debates between the opposing camps became heated to the point of abusiveness. Bakunin did not restrain himself from hurling anti-German and anti-semitic slurs at Marx.

The theory of Anarchist Communism

See also: Anarchist communism Unlike Marxism, anarchism has never had one central set of texts or authorities. But in the last three decades of the nineteenth century the anarchism of many of Bakunin's followers did gradually develop into a clearer position embracing an idea of communism. left The Italian federation of the First International, which overwhelmingly took the Bakuninist line, was the first organisation to set out an explicit vision of communist anarchism. The Italian anarchists included Carlo Cafiero, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. At its Florence Conference of 1876, their federation stated its principles as follows: :"The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity." In his Anarchie et Communisme, Cafiero argued that private property even in the product of labor (Mutualist 'possession') will lead to unequal accumulation of capital, and therefore to class distinctions. Anarchist communists advocate an egalitarian society without markets or wages, based on the principle of "from each according to their ability, to each according to need." Decisions would be made through workers councils and assemblies. There would be direct worker control of production, and self-management of community instutions. Communities, groups and workplaces would be connected together through federations and networks created by free association and popular affinity. Perhaps the most important theorist of anarchist communism was Peter Kropotkin. In a number of works including The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops, Kropotkin plotted his views of what anarchist communist society might look like and how it might be achieved. Kropotkin's anarchist communism was closely linked to his scientific theory based on evolution in which co-operation equaled or surpassed competition in importance, as illustrated in Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution (1897). Subsequent figures in the theory of anarchist communism include Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. The anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) generally saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente's 1932 Comunismo Libertario was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for an anarchist communist society. Most recently, groups like NEFAC (North Eastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists), have advocated various forms of anarchist communism. Historically, anarchist communism is believed to have been put into practice by millions of people in the anarchist collectives and communes of the anarchist-controlled region of Ukraine during the Russian Revolution, and during the Spanish Civil War in the Aragon and Catalonia regions of Spain. Anarchist communists today are involved in various broad labor and community issues; generally revolving around housing, labor struggles/strikes, anti-racism, and building the anarchist movement. Anarchist communists have generally called for more cohesive groups and structures of anarchist groups and thereby garnered criticism from other anarchist sects. Various large-scale groups of anarchist communists exist today with the larger groups existing throughout various countries.

Individualism

See also: Individualist anarchism, mutualism, Anarchism and capitalism, Anarchist economics Benjamin Tucker Individualists, taking much from the writings of Max Stirner, among others, demanded the utmost respect for the liberty of the individual. While some individualists looked to natural law to justify individualism, Stirner's "Egoism" held that self-interest is the only legitimate justification for action. While its roots include William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, and Max Stirner, it is most often associated with the American tradition of individualist anarchism, which advocates private possession (individual ownership of the "full produce" of one's labor) and a market economy where this property may be bought and sold. In the United States, anarchist thoughts were expressed in the writings of Josiah Warren, Benjamin Tucker, and Lysander Spooner. They espouse a labor theory of value, and, as a result, they regard profit (and thus capitalism), as being exploitative. Wage labor is supported as long as wages adhere to the labor theory of value, hence, traditional individualists tend to advocate, and practice, an economic system called mutualism as an alternative to capitalism and communism. The major tenets of mutualism are free association, mutualist credit, contract (or federation), and gradualism (or dual-power). Individualists oppose property titles to unused land, arguing that land must be possessed to be legitimate property. Individualism contrasts with collectivist forms of anarchism (anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism), and the relationships between these groups of been characterized by varying degrees of antagonism and harmony throughout their history. Many also consider Henry David Thoreau as an individualist anarchist due to his position that individuals should not be governed and his belief that all should be free to withdraw themselves from "any incorporated body." Noteworthy anarchist writer and poet John Henry Mackay is also considered an individualist anarchist. Contemporary individualist anarchists include Robert Anton Wilson, and Joe Peacott.

Propaganda by the deed

Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts including riots, assassinations, and insurrections involving anarchists. Some revolutionaries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as bombings and the assassinations of heads of state to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called 'propaganda by the deed'. Between 1894 and 1901, individual anarchists assassinated numerous heads of state. For example, US President McKinley's assassin, Leon Czolgosz, claimed to be a disciple of Emma Goldman - although Goldman disavowed any association with him. Because international terrorism arose during this time period with the widespread distribution of dynamite, bombings were associated with anarchists, an image that remains to this day. Depictions in the press and popular fiction helped create a lasting public impression that anarchists are violent terrorists. This perception was enhanced by events such as the Haymarket Riot, where anarchists were blamed for throwing a bomb at police who came to break up a public meeting in Chicago, Illinois. The use of terrorism and assassination, however, is condemned by most anarchists. Even anarchists who see acts of violence as justified in a context of insurrection and class war would often view individual acts of terrorism as ineffective and counter-productive. However there is no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence as such in the furtherance of anarchism. Mikhail Bakunin and Errico Malatesta saw violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force. Malatesta took the view that it is "necessary to destroy with violence, since one cannot do otherwise, the violence which denies [the means of life and for development] to the workers" (Umanità Nova, number 125, September 6, 1921). Other anarchists share Leo Tolstoy's Christian anarchist belief in nonviolence. These anarcho-pacifists advocate nonviolent resistance as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist revolution. They often see violence as the basis of government and coercion and argue that, as such, violence is illegitimate, no matter who is the target. Some of Proudhon's French followers even saw strike action as coercive and refused to take part in such traditional socialist tactics. Many anarchists would make a distinction between "violence" and "property destruction": they claim that violence is when a person inflicts harm to another person, while property destruction or property damage is not violence, although it can have indirect harm such as financial harm.

Anarchism at work

See also: Anarcho-syndicalism The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism. In the late 19th century, anarcho-syndicalism developed as a movement pursuing industrial actions, especially the general strike, as the primary strategy to achieve anarchist revolution, and "build the new society in the shell of the old". Most anarcho-syndicalists shared a belief in anarchist communism as the best form of the future society, although not all anarchist communists agreed with syndicalism. According to the preamble to the constitution of the US-based Industrial Workers of the World (also called IWW or Wobblies) syndicalist union: ::It is the historic mission of the working class to do away with capitalism. The army of production must be organized, not only for everyday struggle with capitalists, but also to carry on production when capitalism shall have been overthrown. By organizing industrially we are forming the structure of the new society within the shell of the old. Anarcho-syndicalism formed a new wave of anarchism in beginning in the 1890's and 1900's. Even more than the anarchism of the International, this was anarchism brought out of the philosophy books and embodied in the ongoing struggle of millions of working class people. After the fall of the Paris Commune in 1871 French anarchists and socialists had suffered a dark period of repression similar to the aftermath of the 1848 revolution. Anarchism began to resurface in the 1880's and 1890's, and was a particular influence upon the Bourses de Travails of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. It was from this ground that the CGT trade union confederation, founded in 1895, was born. The CGT was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. CGT members Emile Pataud and Emile Pouget wrote the classic syndicalist text in 1909. The fictionalised How we will bring about the revolution (Comment nous ferons la revolution) tells the story of the birth of liberarian communism in a French general strike. However the CGT soon veered away from anarchism, and after the Russian Revolution of 1917 fell into the Communist camp. (The CGT is still an important French trade union, though now thoroughly reformist in sympathy.) In Chicago in June 1905, a convention of two hundred socialists, anarchists, and radical trade unionists from all over the United States founded the IWW. At its peak in 1923 the organization claimed some 100,000 members in good standing, and could marshall the support of perhaps 300,000 workers. Anarchism had been introduced into Spain by followers of Bakunin in the late 1860's, and quickly established itself as the dominant force within the Spanish socialist and working class movements. (See also - Anarchism in Spain.) Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's and in 1900. But the most famous and most successful was the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo founded in 1910. The CNT was to become the major force in Spanish working class politics - it had a membership of 1.58 million in 1934. The CNT played a major role in the Spanish Civil War (see below). In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was amongst trade unions who joined together to form the International Workers Association, an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International. Anarcho-syndicalist unions live on to this day, though with nothing like the strength they once enjoyed. The IWW is still active, with currently around 1000 members. After defeat in the Spanish Civil War, CNT members were killed, imprisoned or forced into exile. Following the death of Francisco Franco, the CNT returned to Spain. Although disputes within the movement caused an acrimonious split shortly thereafter. Other current anarcho-syndicalist organizations include the Workers Solidarity Alliance in the US, and the Solidarity Federation in the UK. Whilst engaging in everyday workplace struggles, anarcho-syndicalist trade unions distance themselves from the methods of reformist trade unions which in their view merely seek short-term and compromising improvements. Anarcho-syndicalism upholds principles of workers solidarity, direct action, and self-management. Workers solidarity is the belief that all workers -- no matter what race, gender, or ethnic group -- are in a similar situation vis-à-vis their bosses. Furthermore, within capitalism, any gains or losses made by some workers in their relation to bosses will eventually impact all workers. Therefore, in order to gain liberation, all workers must support one another in their struggle against bosses. Anarcho-syndicalists believe in using direct action that is, action directly designed to confront a problem. Direct action can range from traditional strike action to active sabotage. Furthermore, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organizations the organizations struggling against the wage system who, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make decisions that affect them amongst themselves. Some critics of anarcho-syndicalism contend that its focus on proletarian class struggle overlooks the needs of segments of society such as parents or others occupied with child-rearing or domestic labor, although some anarcho-syndicalist thought attempts to address other sectors of economic life. Some primitivist authors, notably Bob Black, contend that an anarcho-syndicalist revolution would leave in place social systems they find oppressive (work and workplaces, for example), although anarcho-syndicalists contend that worker self-management would render those systems fundamentally more humane. The anarcho-syndicalist orientation of many early American labor unions played a large part in the formation of the American political spectrum. The United States is the only industrialized former British colony to not have a labor-based political party. In Mexico, anarcho-syndicalists like Ricardo Flores Magón led various revolts and uprisings that would help overthrow the dictator Diaz, lead the way for the growth of anarchism in Latin America, and also go on to influence the modern day Zapatista rebellion.

Insurrectionary Anarchism

Insurrectionary anarchism is critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Here, Wolfi Landstreicher writes some of the basis points of its praxis. Insurrectionary anarchism is not an ideological solution to all social problems, a commodity on the capitalist market of ideologies and opinions, but an on-going praxis aimed at putting an end to the domination of the state and the continuance of capitalism, which requires analysis and discussion to advance. We don t look to some ideal society or offer an image of utopia for public consumption. Throughout history, most anarchists, except those who believed that society would evolve to the point that it would leave the state behind, have been insurrectionary anarchists. Most simply, this means that the state will not merely wither away, thus anarchists must attack, for waiting is defeat; what is needed is open mutiny and the spreading of subversion among the exploited and excluded. Here we spell out some implications that we and some other insurrectionary anarchists draw from this general problem: if the state will not disappear on its own, how then do we end its existence? It is, therefore, primarily a practice, and focuses on the organization of attack...The State of capital will not wither away, attack is the refusal of mediation, pacification, sacrifice, accommodation, and compromise. [Landstreicher, Wolfi] Alfredo M. Bonanno, an Italian insurrectionary anarchist also had a great impact on this specific tendency, writing such works as "Armed Joy," "The Anarchist Tension," and others. In the US, Willful Disobedience, Killing King Abacus, and other magazines caused interest in insurrectionary anarchism to grow.

Anarchism and feminism

Emma Goldman 1869-1940 See also: Anarcha-Feminism Anarcha-feminism is a kind of radical feminism that espouses the belief that patriarchy is a fundamental problem in society. While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as anarcha-feminism dates back to at to the early 70s , during the second-wave feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views patriarchy as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of hierarchy, and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of civilization, and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. Eco-feminism is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre, although even early first-wave feminist Mary Wollstonecraft held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, "Free Women", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement.

Religion

See also: Christian anarchism, Anarchism and religion Leo Tolstoy 1828-1910 Christian anarchism is the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answerable, the authority of God as embodied in the teachings of Jesus. Christian anarchists therefore feel that earthly authority such as government, or indeed the established church do not and should not have power over them. Christian anarchists are pacifists and oppose the use of all physical force, both proactive and reactive. Christian anarchists believe that freedom from earthly authority will only be guided by the grace of God if individuals display compassion for others and turn the other cheek when confronted by violence. Its adherents believe this quest for freedom is justified spiritually and quote the teachings of Jesus, some of whom are critical of the existing establishment and church. They believe all individuals can directly communicate with God and will eventually unify in peace under this one God. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was Leo Tolstoy, author of The Kingdom of God is Within You, who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Some Christian anarchists oppose war and other statist aggression through tax resistance, while others submit to taxation. Ammon Hennacy advocated tax resistance, while Tolstoy opposed it. Tolstoy claimed that the act of resisting taxes requires physical force to withold what a government tries to take. Contrary to this Hennacy, who like Tolstoy also believed in nonresistance, managed to resist taxes without resorting to physical force. Many Christian anarchists are vegetarian or vegan. Spiritual Anarchism, or Divine Anarchy, was originally expressed by the political revolutionary, poet and yogi Sri Aurobindo during the First World War in a series of articles published in the Arya, and later made available in two books, The Human Cycle and The Ideal of Human Unity. The exaggerations of both individualistic and communistic streams of anarchist thought are harmonized by going beyond the vital and intellectual foundations of most other schools of anarchism and rooting itself firmly in the spiritual realization and dynamic perfection of the individual and universal godhead in the race. A spiritual anarchist holds that a perfect form of social organization can only be achieved by governing our individual and collective life by a higher light than the intellectual reason, a deeper law of solidarity and oneness than emotional or mental bonds of association. Although it has deviated significantly from its course, the international township of Auroville was originally intended to be organized as a Divine Anarchy, and may well one day fulfill its purpose.

The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy. Anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 Kronstadt rebellion. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In Ukraine anarchists fought in the civil war against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by Nestor Makhno). Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, Bakunin's predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the CGT and IWW began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the Communist International. In Paris, a group of Russian anarchist exiles around Nestor Makhno concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the strutures of Bolshevism. Their manifesto known as the Platform, or the "Organizational Platform of Libertarian Communists", was supported by some Anarchist Communists, but opposed by many others.

The fight against fascism

In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of fascism in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in popular fronts with reformist democrats and Soviet-led Communists against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different: Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority. In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. (see David Berry, ‘Fascism or Revolution!’ Anarchism and Antifascism in France, 1933-39*) In Spain, the CNT initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the right responded with an attempted coup, and the Spanish Civil War was underway. In the history of anarchism the Spanish Civil War of (1936-1939) is a defining event on at least the scale of the First International or the Russian Revolution of 1917. A widely popular anarchist movement supported by anti-fascist militias took control of the industrial stronghold of Barcelona, and rural areas mainly in northeast Spain where they collectivized the land. For a few brief months in 1936-37 libertarian communism was being put into practice. But even before the eventual fascist victory, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the Soviet-backed communists. Whilst the CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, Communist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and the revolution was destroyed. Anarchism has never since come so close to realising the dream of libertarian communism as in that short summer of anarchy.

Contemporary anarchism

Punk rock

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. In the UK this was associated with the punk rock movement; the band Crass is celebrated for its anarchist and pacifist ideas. In Denmark, the Freetown Christiania was created in downtown Copenhagen. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like the one still thriving in Barcelona, in Catalonia. Militant resistance to neo-Nazi groups in places like Germany, and the uprisings of autonomous Marxism, situationist, and Autonomist groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. For further details, see anarcho-punk

Environmentalism

See also: Green anarchism Eco-anarchism generally is a belief in deep ecology, direct action against earth destroying institutions and systems, and generally a critique of industrial capitalism, although generally not against civilization per se. There is a significant anarchist element to the environmental movement, including those that are known as eco-anarchists and green-anarchists. Eco-anarchism is generally a broad term that broadly refers to anarchists engaged in the earth liberation movement. The largest segment of 'eco-anarchists' is the Earth First! movement, a network of various collectives formed along anarchist principles. Earth First! generally engages in direct action and eco-defense, such as tree sitting and 'locking down'. In the modern anarchist movement, eco-anarchists generally adhere to deep ecology, which is a worldview that embraces biodiversity and sustainability. Eco-feminism is also sometimes considered the form of eco-anarchist feminism.

Civil rights

See also: black anarchism, APOC, ARA Anti-Racist Action is a loose federation of groups that focus on confronting (sometimes violently) racist agitators, such as the Klu Klux Klan or neo-Nazis when they appear in public. Black anarchism opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Black anarchists, recognizing that anarchism has traditionally been European or white-based, seek to forge their own movement that represents their own identity and tailored to their own unique situation. Theorists include Ashanti Alston, Lorenzo Komboa Ervin, and Sam Mbah. Anarchist People of Color was created as a forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States.

Globalization of capitalism

Globally, anarchism has also grown in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and anti-globalization movements. Since the late 1990s, anarchists have been known for their involvement in protests against World Trade Organization and Group of Eight meetings, and the World Economic Forum -- protests that are generally portrayed in mainstream media coverage as violent riots. Some anarchists form black blocs at protests, in which members of the bloc wear black and cover their faces to avoid police identification and to create one large solid mass. Bloc members confront and defend other protesters from the police, set up barricades, and sometimes engage in the destruction of corporate property. Although black bloc anarchists are often the only visible anarchists at large protests, large-scale protests are often constructed and organized through anarchist structures. Affinity groupings, spokescouncils, and networking all have led to the success of various large-scale anti-war and anti-globalization mobilizations, most notably at the protests against the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle. Anarchists have also been involved heavily with underground direct action movements such as the Animal Liberation Front, and the Earth Liberation Front, which are considered "eco-terrorist" by federal authorities and some liberal organizations. Anarchism (or at least anarchist systems of organizing) is now largely seen to have about the same sway in modern revolutionary movements as Marxism had in the 1960's.

The question of civilization

See also: anarcho-primitivism John Zerzan Beginning in the later part of the 20th century anarchist John Zerzan wrote in Elements of Refusal, and later, Future Primitive that civilization not just the state would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved. A rejection of industrial technology is also prominent in the views of many green anarchists. This worldview was associated with the growth of the anti-roads movement in the UK, Earth First! and the Earth Liberation Front in the US, and the actions of Theodore Kaczynski (aka the "Unabomber"). Primitivism is a philosophy advocating a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society, and a critique of industrial civilization, and the alienation that technology, progress, etc, have created between people and the natural world. Primitivism believes that industrial society inevitably produces oppressive structures through specialization of tasks or division of labor, and that technology has similar negative implications. Most forms of primitivism question civilization itself. Primitivism generally sees that by the birth of agriculture, and the birth of cities and the creating of production surplus, gave rise to structures of hierarchy, and later statism. Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. The primitivist movement has connections to radical environmentalism movements such as the Earth Liberation Front and Earth First!.

Parallel structures

See also: anarchist economics, dual-power networks Anarchists engage in building parallel structures and organizations, such as Food Not Bombs, radical labor unions, infoshop and radical social centers, new sets of schooling systems, media in various forms, organizing around housing and land issues, and work toward accountability with police and other institutions through such tools as consensus decision-making. This is in line with the general anarchist concept of creating "dual-power", the idea of creating the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, hierarchical one.

Technology

See also: Crypto-anarchism and Cypherpunk. Some have said that recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Public key cryptography and the Internet have made anonymous digital currencies such as e-gold an alternative to statist fiat money. Many people use cell phones or the Internet to form loose communities that could be said to be organized along anarchist lines. Some of these communities have as their purpose the production of information in a non-commodified or use-value format, a goal made attainable by the availability of personal computing, desktop publishing, and digital media. These things have made it possible for individuals to share music files over the Internet. There are also open source programming communities, who donate their time and offer their product for free. Examples include Usenet, the free software movement (including the GNU/Linux community and the wiki paradigm), and Indymedia. Some anarchists see information technology as the way to replace hierarchy, defeat monopoly, and prevent war, and support culture jamming in particular as a way to do so. Some writers particularly Iain M. Banks, who has written quite extensively in the science fiction genre about The Culture, a futuristic society which has disposed of government have theorised that anarchism would be inevitable with the technological advances that would make travelling and living in space plausible . The Electro-anarchy Collective poses a similar theory that technological power will naturally overthrow human government (although some question their anarchist credentials, claiming that technological governance is no less oppressive than human governance). It has also been argued that the free software movement is an example of anarchic organization, this being an example not of hierarchical business, but of voluntary association for the production of a good.

Post-structuralism

See also: Post-anarchism The term post-anarchism was originated by Saul Newman in his book "From Bakunin to Lacan: Antiauthoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power" to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. In this sense it has similarities with post-Marxism associated with Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffee. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, post-colonialism and Zapatismo have been suggested for inclusion under the rubric. Others have argued that the term "poststructuralist anarchism" is preferable in order to maintain an unbroken link with the anarchist heritage. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse

Against ideology

See also: Post-left anarchy Post-left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional "left" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of ideology in general. It has rapidly developed since the fall of the Soviet Union, which many view as the death of authoritarian leftism; however, its roots are clearly visible in the ideas of the 1960s Situationists. It is not an independent "movement" as such but rather a critical way of thinking about anarchist ideas. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes (anti-war, anti-nuclear, etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of hierarchy. Total individual liberation is a key focus, rather than merely economic liberation. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: CrimethInc, the magazine Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed and its editor Jason McQuinn, Bob Black, and others. For more information, see Infoshop.org's Anarchy After Leftism section, and the Post-left section on anarchism.ws.

Personal practice

Small 'a' anarchism is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as "a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority." As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with post-left anarchy, while Neal's insistence that it entails a rejection of the idea that there can be an "ultimate Truth" recalls the poststructuralist turns of post-anarchism (see above). David Graeber and Andrej Grubacic offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, "the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun." Graeber and Grubacic do not offer a comprehensive list of groups within this rubric, but suggest that it includes the likes of autonomism, Zapatismo and radical democracy. It should be stressed that many of these groups do not describe themselves as "anarchist", perhaps deliberately, and are grouped instead on the basis of what they do, implying that the criteria for inclusion are similar to those articulated by Neal. It is unclear how far the term has been picked up by the wider anarchist movement, but it does help to clarify and begin to explain some of the conflicts and disagreements within contemporary anarchism.

Unsorted sections

Many of these sections down here can be merged into preceding sections, esp. the "conflict" discussions. Much can be deleted as it is redundant.

Conceptions of an anarchist society

See also: Anarchism and Society Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state, and in fact many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a monopoly on violence, and uses force and violence to expand and protect elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.

Pacifism

Some anarchists consider Pacifism (opposition to war) to be inherent in their philosophy. Some anarchists take it further and follow Leo Tolstoy's belief in non-violence (note, however, that these anarcho-pacifists are not necessarily Christian anarchists as Tolstoy was), advocating non-violent resistance as the only method of achieving a truly anarchist revolution. Anarchist literature often portrays war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands. Many anarchists subscribe to Randolph Bourne's view that "war is the health of the state". Anarchists believe that if they were to support a war they would be strengthening the state indeed, Peter Kropotkin was alienated from other anarchists when he expressed support for the British in World War I. Just as they are critical and distrustful of most government endeavours, anarchists often view the stated reasons for war with a cynical eye. Since the Vietnam War protests in North America and, most recently, the protests against the war in Iraq, much anarchist activity has been anti-war based. Many anarchists in the current movement however, reject complete pacifism, (although groups like Earth First!, and Food Not Bombs are based on principles of non-violence), and instead are in favor of self-defense, and sometimes violence against oppressive and authoritarian forces which they in fact also consider as defensive violence. Anarchists are skeptical however of winning a direct armed conflict with the state, and instead concern themselves mostly with organizing. Most anarchists however, do not consider the destruction of property to be violent, as do most activists who believe in non-violence.

Parliamentarianism

While most anarchists firmly oppose voting, or otherwise participating in the State institution, there are a few that disagree. Even hard-core anarchists (e.g. Proudhon) have succumbed to the temptation of electoral politics - and inevitably regretted it. Voluntaryism is a anarchist school of thought which emphasizes "tending your own garden" and "neither ballets nor bullets." The anarchist case against voting is explained in The Ethics of Voting by George H. Smith.

See also

* Anarchism and Marxism * Anarchism and capitalism * Anarchist symbolism * Anarcho-punk * Anarcho-Skinheads * Punk ideology * Libertarian Socialism * Anarcho-syndicalism * Black cat, for a symbol of anarchism * Christian anarchism * Equalism * Crimethinc * Earth First! * Infoshop * Individualist anarchism * List of anarchist concepts * List of anarchists * List of anarchist organizations * Anarchism and the arts * Past and present anarchist communities * Situationist * Alternative society * Syndicalism * Temporary Autonomous Zone * Free store * Utopian Anarchism

Historical events

*Paris Commune (1871) *Haymarket Riot (1886) *Kronstadt rebellion (1921) *Spanish Revolution (1936) (see Anarchism in Spain) *May 1968, France (1968) *WTO Meeting in Seattle (1999)

Books

*Alexander Berkman, What is Anarchism?, Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist, others *Mikhail Bakunin, God and the State, The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State, others *Emma Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, Living My Life, others *Daniel Guérin, Anarchism *Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid, The Conquest of Bread, others *Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Property? *Rudolf Rocker, Anarcho-Syndicalism *Voline, The Unknown Revolution *Robert Paul Wolff, In Defense of Anarchism *William Godwin, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice *Max Stirner, The Ego And Its Own Contractarian (as opposed to Natural Law or utilitarian) anarchism *Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God is Within You - Christian pacifist anarchism *Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle *Hakim Bey, Temporary Autonomous Zones Ontological anarchism

Anarchism by region/culture

* African Anarchism * Anarchism in Spain * Anarchism in the English tradition

External links

The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the links subpage. * Anarchoblogs Blogs by Anarchists. * Anarchy Archives extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications. *Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia * Melbourne Anarchist Archives 1966-1973 * Industrial Workers of the World * IWW Retail Workers * International Workers Association (IWA-AIT) Autism 991686 1650557 932302 1982806 714324 2269867 1985416 10055 31882 23502 23597 490620 21226 8498 15459 338705 336836 34583 37556 9249 276370 34616 22641 11887 1076929 34558 34630 637087 218873 576 32927 11867 242189 550706 1401910 563299 195978 379234 55605 23593 68672 2661 55697 205075 884589 488083 22984 12546 7844 45286 51115 357125 170338 2302106 1224162 232386 224908 1781678 346205 18456 27699 667179 83859 38892 33898 1305330 17524 999267 304572 191445 228569 161095 366663 635490 25781 128987 49105 30598 17725 26700 56476 898648 1057043 2225882 14892 196984 11967 129368 2092692 195948 48093 239870 977763 35984 226722 2179947 1168317 302319 163818 53273 184540 66997 35524 19459 36163 1671382 463899 10845 34647 69149 3076858 22332 240766 46510 34752 34578 35502 34703 876719 1837362 15785 522298 221998 51078 603198 5311 18831 1018303 1802608 34749 195522 680115 47671 276462 59929 38238 27790 1744980 1042734 39653 1765594 22366 53848 543434 214169 57880 34551 1386741 915081 5750 2870 185263 639800 1817319 1317207 540801 1781075 4868 604063 277248 1471503 1004186 466415 579359 1573031 1572780 24029 88935 13152 1058293 1699534 26713 966015 19356 31717 1302795 1544676 30375 24170 1074590 529551 21494 169496 312662 34670 492142 54394 1881115 8088 763501 42148 694777 24022 334037 48720 39705 972242 1566180 1770807 1496341 929970 2114377 1473016 2641110 15911 780636 816207 19865 11007 30680 15791 2315 15804 87929 8143 1012 156658 38553 http://www.news-medical.net/?id=7651 http://www.melaniephillips.com/articles/archives/001468.html http://www.cdc.gov/nip/vacsafe/concerns/thimerosal/faqs-thimerosal.htm http://www.littlecanaries.org/california_stats.htm http://www.autistics.org http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/ http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12216059&dopt=Abstract http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12108622 http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm http://www.cmu.edu/PR/releases04/040727_autism.html http://www.rdos.net/eng/asperger.htm http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4649492-111414,00.html http://www.autistics.org/library/tito-can.html http://www.autismandcomputing.org.uk/attention.pdf http://www.autismandcomputing.org.uk http://www.aspiesforfreedom.com http://news.mc.duke.edu/global/print.php?context=%2Fnews%2Farticle.php&id=9151 http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?AJHG42329ABS http://www.gender.org.uk/about/00_diffs.htm http://briandeer.com/mmr-lancet.htm http://autismcoach.com/Autism%20Immunization%20Poll.htm http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/7395411 http://www.curezone.com/art/read.asp?ID=79&db=2&C0=735 http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html http://www.aann.org/ce/jnn04-02b.htm http://www.sentex.net/~nexus23/naa_aba.html http://users.1st.net/cibra/OpenLetter.htm http://users.1st.net/cibra/warningindex.htm http://www.asatonline.org http://www.asatonline.org/about_autism/autism_info13.html http://scott.mprojects.wiu.edu/~eccts/articles/autism1.html http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/dan/whatisdan.htm http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/2005_07_01_aboutautism_archive.html http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ http://autism.about.com/ http://www.autism.org/contents.html http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ http://www.autism-resources.com/ http://www.autismtoday.com/ http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm Autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. Although the specific etiology of autism is unknown, autism most likely results from genetically mediated vulnerability to environmental triggers. And while these environmental factors have not yet been ascertained with scientific certainty, researchers have found at least seven major genes specifically linked to autism. Prevalence in the United States is estimated at one child in 166, but for families that already have one autistic child, incidence is about one in twenty. Diagnosis is based on a list of psychiatric criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used. Physiologically, autism may lack readily visible differences, but it is linked to abnormal biological and neurochemical development of the brain. A complete physical and neurological evaluation will typically be part of determining a diagnosis of autism. Some now speculate that autism is in fact several distinct conditions that manifest themselves in similar ways rather than a single diagnosis. By definition, autism must manifest delays in "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play," with "onset prior to age 3 years." (DSM-IV) The ICD-10 also says that symptoms must "manifest before the age of three years." There have been large increases in the reported incidence of autism, for reasons that are heavily debated in the scientific community. There are cases of children with autism who have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology since it involves aspects of neurological brain structure determined very early in development. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see them as part of who they are.

History

Dr. Hans Asperger described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as Asperger's syndrome. The word autism was first used in the English language by Swiss psychiatrist Eugene Bleuler in a 1912 number of the American Journal of Insanity. The Oxford English Dictionary states that the word is derived from the Greek (autos, "self"). When referring to a person with autism the term autistic is often used, although the term person with autism may be used instead. However, the classification of autism did not occur until the middle of the twentieth century, when in 1943, Dr. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital studied a group of 11 children and introduced the label early infantile autism. At the same time an Austrian scientist, Dr. Hans Asperger, described a different form of autism that became known as Asperger's syndrome but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by World War II in Germany, in fact the majority of his work wasn't officially recognised until 1997. Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), more often referred to today as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in communication skills, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Very few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians instead use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a diagnosis.

Characteristics

Dr. Leo Kanner introduced the label early infantile autism in 1943. There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the sensory system of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain stimulations can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another. Nevertheless, professionals within pediatric care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible. However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good.

Social development

Typically, developing infants are social beings early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as unautistic children. Autistic children often appear to prefer being alone rather than in the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of anger or affection in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their parents, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, teaching, and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected attachment behavior. Autistic children appear to lack "theory of mind", the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher primates such as adult gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The social alienation of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have imaginary friends as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children. Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to them being changed. It is not uncommon for individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations.

Sensory system

A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in sensory integration dysfunction. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behaviour; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in speech, language or motor skills; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement. One common example is an autistic's hearing. The autistic may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the autistic may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see cocktail party effect). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic.

Communication difficulties

By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is "no." Speech development in autistics takes different paths. Some autistics remain mute throughout their lives while being fully literate and able to communicate in other ways images, sign language, and typing are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the teenage years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that autistics are unintelligent or unaware. Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online chat rooms, discussion boards or websites and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as Autreat. Those who do speak often use language in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a condition called echolalia. Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in. Many autistics have a strong tonal sense, and can often understand spoken language better if it is sung to them. Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large vocabularies, but have great difficulty in sustaining typical conversations. The "give and take" of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a monologue on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in "parallel monologue" taking turns expressing views and information. Just as non-autistics have trouble understanding autistic body languages, vocal tones, or phraseology, autistics similarly have trouble with such things in non-autistics. In particular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; non-autistics often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what autistics say or expect the autistic to sense such unstated meaning in their own words. The body language of autistics can be difficult for non-autistics to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other autistics, but do not match those used by non-autistics. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the non-autistic's auditory system often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, robot-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems. Since non-autistics are often unfamiliar with the autistic body language, and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let non-autistics know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, autistics do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed.

Repetitive behaviors

Although autistics usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or "stimming," may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As children, they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route can be extremely disturbing. Autistics sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about vacuum cleaners, train schedules or lighthouses. Often they show great interest in numbers, symbols or science topics.

DSM definition

Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as: #A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3): ##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: ###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction ###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level ###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest) ###lack of social or emotional reciprocity ##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following: ###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime) ###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others ###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language ###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level ##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: ###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus ###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals ###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements) ###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects #Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. #The disturbance is not better accounted for by Rett's Disorder or Childhood Disintegrative Disorder. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ' s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective. (See the DSM cautionary statement.) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis.

Types of autism

Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly dysfunctional and apparently mentally handicapped to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional ("normal") to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an IQ 80 referred to as having "low-functioning autism" (LFA), while those with IQ 80 are referred to as having "high-functioning autism" (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to IQ. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible. As a consequence, many "high-functioning" autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high IQ, are underdiagnosed, thus making the claim that "autism implies retardation" self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics.

Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome

Asperger described his patients as "little professors". In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of "[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]" [ #endnote_bnat] while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes "no clinically significant delay" in these areas. [ #endnote_bnas] The DSM makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that Asperger's syndrome is synonymous with "higher-functioning autism," or that it is a lesser disorder than autism. There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely geeks with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in Rain Man has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism.

Autism as a spectrum disorder

:For more details on this topic, see Autistic spectrum. Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as autistic spectrum disorders. A related continuum is Sensory Integration Dysfunction, which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap. There are two main manifestations of classical autism, regressive autism and early infantile autism. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins at approximately 18 months. This is a source of some controversy as to when the neurological difference involved in autism truly begin.

Models

Similar to the causes and origins of autism and Asperger's syndrome, the model of what autism really is brings its own continuing conjecture and debate. Amongst several competing theories are the underconnectivity theory [ #endnote_cmuut] developed by cognitive scientists at Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh, the Neanderthal theory [ #endnote_rdosnt] , Simon Baron-Cohen's extreme male brain theory, the lack of theory of mind, and the preoperational-autism theory. *The extreme male brain theory The extreme male brain theory of autism, proposed by Simon Baron-Cohen in accordance with his empathizing-systemizing theory [ #endnote_guardianest] , suggests that autistics have extreme forms of what he describes as the male brain: they are good (often very good) at systemizing, and very bad at empathizing. Poetry composed by autistics [ #endnote_atpoetry] would seem to challenge this idea, but the scientific validity of the idea is still under discussion. *The preoperational-autism theory The preoperational-autism theory states that autistic people are those who become neurologically impeded at the preoperational stage of cognitive development, where much of information processing is at a holistic-visual level and largely musical and nonverbal. This also addresses the issue of the theory of mind where children (autistic and non-autistic) at the preoperational stage of cognitive development have not attained decentralization from egocentrism. *Monotropism In this model of mind, mental events compete for and consume attention. In a polytropic mind, many interests have a moderate amount of attention put into them, while in a monotropic mind, the person's attention is put into a few more specialized interests. The theory argues that when many interests are aroused, multiple complex behaviors emerge, but if only a few interests are aroused, fewer but more intense behaviors emerge. A May 2005 article in The Autism Journal [ #endnote_autismmonothropism] and information available from the group Autism and Computing [ #endnote_AandC] delves further into this subject. *Underconnectivity theory Underconnectivity theory theorizes that autism is a system-wide brain disorder that limits the coordination and integration among brain areas. With the aid of fMRI, it was seen that white matter, which connects various areas of the brain like cables, has abnormalities in people with autism. This theory may be related to the "lack of central coherence" theory proposed by Uta Frith, which suggests that children with autism are good at paying attention to detail but have difficulty integrating information from a range of sources. *Mind blindness theory This theory says that the autistic person has "mind blindness", or the inability to create models of other people's thoughts. The typical example of this is the Sally-Anne test where the subjects have to try to determine what a third party's action will be (see theory of mind also). Some autistics do not seem to fit this model, however. *Faulty mirror neuron theory In some instances, brain areas that are active during the observation of hand-movements are silent in autistic individuals . The activity is markedly enhanced in non-autistic persons. So the social deficits observed in autism could be the result of a faulty mirror neuron system, which could also prevent normal development of empathy. *Social construct theory This is the belief that autism is not really a disorder, but instead is a social construct. That is, supporters of this theory do not believe autism exists at all; they believe (partly supported by recent reference to the rising cases of diagnosed autism) that autism is just the way some people are that is, a part of the person's personality, which might explain the apparent difficulty in finding a model and a cure. This is further supported by the fact that autistic people have normal lifespans and their condition often comes with advantages, not just disadvantages. *Genetics theory Research done by some institutions seek to find a way for early and more accurate detection of autism similar to Rett syndrome. Instead of searching for one particular gene as the cause for autism, many of the studies tend to search for complex interactions between a number of genes. A 2005 study done by the Duke Center for Human Genetics at Duke University finds some evidence that complex interactions between GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) receptor genes might be part of the cause of autism. One of the functions of the GABA genes is to inhibit the nerve system from firing. The theory is that somehow GABA genes suffer damage of some kind, leading to an overwhelmed sensory system causing the characteristics or symptoms of autism. [ #endnote_dukegeneticspressrelease] , [ #endnote_dukegenetics]

Epidemiology

While the epidemiology of autism is largely unknown, there is no shortage of theories in the area. In addition, in recent times the number of diagnosed incidents of autism has risen dramatically.

Theories of the etiology of autism

*Brain testosterone theory Simon Baron-Cohen proposes a model for autism based in his empathising-systemising (E-S) theory [ #endnote_guardianest2] . His team at the Autism Research Centre in Cambridge, UK, measured testosterone levels in the amniotic fluid of mothers while pregnant. This is presumed to reflect levels in the babies themselves. The team found that the babies with higher fetal testosterone levels had a smaller vocabulary and made eye contact less often when they were a year old. His group has looked at the original 58 children again, at age four. The researchers found that the children with higher testosterone in the womb are less developed socially, and the interests of boys are more restricted than girls. The results are published in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry in a 2004 issue [ #endnote_BaronCohen2004CPP] . Baron-Cohen theorizes that high fetal testosterone levels push brain development towards an improved ability to see patterns and analyze systems. Males supposedly tend to be better at these tasks than females. But the high levels are thought to inhibit the development of communication and empathy, which are allegedly typical female skills. (New Scientist, May 24 2003) [ #endnote_BaronCohen2003NS] . However, there is still no demonstrable evidence that testosterone levels affect brain development or autism. Gender or biodeterminism is a fashionable explanation for many human behaviors, but has been challenged by other professionals [ #endnote_bttchallenge] . *Vaccine theory Controversial research by Andrew Wakefield in the UK that was published in The Lancet in the February 1998 issue, dubbed the "Wakefield Study", suggested a possible link between autism and the MMR vaccine. The original research has come under criticism, largely due to an alleged conflict of interest on Wakefield's part [ #endnote_Wakefieldconflict] , rather than the reliability of the study results. Critics have claimed that Wakefield's study contains many obvious flaws, including an inability to recognize bias in his sample, and 12 of the original 14 authors of the paper retracted a controversial conclusion of the study, that further research into possible triggers, such as MMR, should be undertaken. The co-authors did not retract Wakefield's discovery of autistic enterocolitis as a completely new syndrome, which has now been replicated in studies around the world as a new, unexplained disease in patients with autism. In October, 2005, a study by the respected Cochrane Library said, on the basis of 31 pieces of research into the possible side effects of MMR, that it found no association between MMR and autism. It also said that no fewer than nine of the most celebrated studies used against him were unreliable in the way they were constructed, add that their conclusion MMR was 'safe' or 'well-tolerated' needs to be 'interpreted with caution'. Controversy continues, with Wakefield continuing to defend his theory. Although allegations that Wakefield study is flawed does not in itself prove that no autism-vaccine connection exists, his critiics vigorously suggest that the theory may be false. Several independent groups, including the National Academy of Sciences, have conducted thorough investigations into the possible link and concluded that the evidence does not support a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. One study by Gillberg and Heijbel in 1998 examining the prevalence of autism in children born in Sweden from 1975 to 1984 [ #endnote_gillbergheijbel] found no difference in the prevalence of autistic children born before the introduction of the MMR vaccine in Sweden and those born after the vaccine was introduced. Another study, conducted by Madsen and other researchers in 2002, studied all children born in Denmark from January 1991 through December 1998 [ #endnote_madsenetal] . There were a total of 537,303 children in the study; 440,655 of the children were vaccinated with MMR and 96,648 were not. The researchers did not find a higher risk of autism in the vaccinated than in the unvaccinated group of children. Research in the U.S. has suggested a similar link between autism and the DPT vaccine. However, unlike early claims from Wakefield, it is doubtful that a large majority of autism cases would come from this vaccine. Despite all the evidence to the contrary, controversy surrounding autism and vaccines continues to this day, and many polls, such as the autism coach poll [ #endnote_autismcoachpoll] , which involved only 15 respondents, show vaccines as the most popular theory currently on the etiology of autism among parents of autistic children. In a controversial article in June 2005, Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. described research suggesting that it is not the vaccines themselves, but a mercury-based preservative called thimerosal, used in some vaccine preparations (although not MMR), that may be a cause of autism [ #endnote_kennedythimerosal] . Kennedy argues that autism was first observed in children who were born around the time of introduction of thimerosal into mass-produced vaccines, and that the incidence of autism in the United States is well correlated with the amounts of thimerosal children receive during their first two years of life. However, the CDC has described a link between thimerosal and autism as 'unlikely'. In 1999 the Public Health Service (including the CDC, FDA, and NIH) recommended that thimerosal no longer be used in vaccine preparations. And while thimerosal is now utilized in only a very few childhood vaccines, it has not been established that autism rates have dropped significantly. The CDC and most medical organizations have gone to great lengths to discredit this theory of autism. However, the California Department of Developmental Services (DDS), considered to have the best reporting system for autism in the US, released in late 2005 indicating an unprecedented decline in new cases of professionally diagnosed, full syndrome DSM IV autism entering the DDS system, from 734 new cases during the second quarter of 2005 to 678 new cases during the third quarter of 2005, a 7 1/2% decline in one quarter. The modest, but statistically significant decline coincides with vaccines containing thimerosal being phased out in recent years. *Brain trauma Susan Bryson has claimed that some autistics have evidence of trauma to the brain stem in early development, and that a small portion of the thalidomide victims have become autistic. The victims' limbs were normal unless thalidomide use continued later in the pregnancy. The brain stem anomaly's most striking feature is inability to focus attention away from a stimulus in a short time like neurotypicals, as demonstrated in a psychological test. Some people claim the inability to shift attention quickly interferes with the ability to read nonverbal language where fast attention shifts are needed (such as eye language), suggesting that being nonverbal is not a primary feature of autism. Strong and shiftless focus is, however, a benefit in some areas like science, programming, and advanced mathematics. This is supported by the monotropism hypothesis. Dr. Bernard Rimland's influential research and his book Infantile Autism (1967) argued that autism was not caused by childhood trauma or abuse, but by damage to certain areas of the brain, particularly the reticular formation which associates present sensory input with memories of past experiences. Dr. Rimland is a foremost advocate of the theory that autism may be precipitated by mercury and heavy metal toxicity [ #endnote_curezonemercury] . He also is prominent in increasingly common claims of successful treatment of autism in children particularly regarding improvements in ability to comprehend the spoken word with the gluten-free, casein-free diet and mercury chelation therapy. Others claim Dr. Bernard Rimland's methods alleviate the symptoms of heavy metal poisoning, but not autism. Curing heavy metal poisoning when it is present is a worthy goal (it helps with IQ and other learning difficulties as well as general health), but claiming a benefit for autism is a misrepresentation. Heavy metal poisoning may be more common among autistics due to a severe metallothionein deficiency, but more evidence is needed to substantiate the idea that heavy metals cause autism. It is still being studied. The presence of heavy metals, particularly mercury, might make an autism diagnosis more likely, however. *Viral or bacterial infection A growing body of peer-reviewed studies published in mainstream journals has shown that many common diseases of previously unknown origin are caused by the presence of slowly acting viruses. For example, cervical cancer is caused by the human papilloma wart virus; some cases of liver cancer are caused by hepatitis C or B; Schizophrenia may be caused by Borna virus. Paul W. Ewald, among others, argues that the available data on the origin of autism is consistent with it being caused by a virus or infection.

Increase in diagnoses of autism

:For more details on this topic, see Autism epidemic. The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the National Center for Health Statistics. There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of schizophrenia and multiple personality disorder in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase. Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from the M.I.N.D. Institute in California (October 17 2002), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below). Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at San Antonio and cochair of the American Academy of Pediatrics Autism Expert Panel, who says, "There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure." (Newsweek reference below). The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a real increase would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while little or no real increase would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of in vitro fertilization on the number of incidences of autism. One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between "geekdom" and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a Wired Magazine article in 2001 entitled "The Geek Syndrome", which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement [ #endnote_Wired] . This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. See clinomorphism for further discussion of this issue. Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of independent adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the pervasive developmental disorder category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a differential diagnosis.

Remediation

There are many different therapies and treatments but the success they have varies dramatically from person to person. Remediation of the debilitating aspects of autism is also hindered by widespread disagreement over its nature and causes, and by a lack of recognized and effective therapies. The behavioral and cognitive functioning of individuals with autism might improve with the help of psychosocial and pharmacological interventions. Among psychosocial treatments, intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life might increase the ability of children with autism to acquire language and the ability to learn. In adults with autism, some studies have found beneficial effects of the antidepressant medications clomipramine and fluoxetine and the antipsychotic medication haloperidol. In many cases quite a few medications will have to be tried until a successful drug is found, and the drug may lose effectiveness later in life, complicating matters further. Dr. Bruno Bettelheim believed that autism was linked to early childhood trauma, and his work was highly influential for decades. Parents, especially mothers, of autistics were blamed for having caused their child's condition through the withholding of affection. Leo Kanner, who first described autism (Autistic disturbances of affective contact, 1943) originated the "refrigerator mother" hypothesis, which held that autism was at least partly caused by a lack of affection from the mother. Although Kanner eventually renounced the concept and apologized publicly, Bettelheim took the theory further. These theories did nothing to address the fact that having more than one autistic child in a family is exceptional, not the rule. Treatments based on these theories failed to help autistic children.

Applied Behavior Analysis

A major breakthrough (in some respects) in the remediation of autistic behaviors came through work spearheaded by Ole Ivar Lovaas, who believed that success could be obtained by behavioral approaches. :Lovaas' approaches often referred to as Discrete Trial, Intensive Behavior Intervention, and Applied Behavior Analysis are some of the best known and most widely used in the field and focus on the development of attention, imitation, receptive or expressive language, and pre-academic and self-help skills. Using a one-to-one therapist-child ratio and the "antecedent-behavior-consequence" (ABC) model, interventions based on this work involve trials or tasks. Each consists of (a) an antecedent, which is a directive or request for the child to perform an action; (b) a behavior, or response from the child, which may be categorized as successful performance, noncompliance, or no response; and (c) a consequence, defined as the reaction from the therapist, which ranges from strong positive reinforcement to a strong negative response, "No!"(Autism Society of America, 2001) [ #endnote_aanaba] . Lovaas' Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) methods were the first scientifically validated therapy for autism. Early intervention, generally before school-age, seems to be critical to achieving optimal outcomes. ABA techniques based on B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior have succeeded in helping nonverbal children start to talk, typically going from zero words to several dozen. By allowing children to express their needs, even rudimentary speech can alleviate frustration and tantrums. The scientific validity of Lovaas's methods is questioned by many professionals as well as parents and autistics themselves. Lovaas's initial studies looked promising but have not been reproduced by others with the same rate of success. There have not been any double-blind studies that validate ABA, so it is unclear if any improvements seen in children are simply due to their normal course of development. Many also feel that there are serious ethical problems, and point out that early ABA was based around the use of aversives which could be experienced by an autistic person as confusing and painful [ #endnote_sentexaba] . Most contemporary behaviorist programs for autistics employ no aversiveness at all, and not all attempt to "extinguish" behaviors such as rocking or spinning that autistics use for calming purposes. ABA may not be appropriate for every autistic or developmentally delayed child. ABA has come into widespread use only in the last decade and the demand is outstripping the supply of committed and experienced service providers. As a result, parents of children need to be extra vigilant in choosing appropriate treatments for their children and especially in choosing providers, who may be inexperienced, use questionable methods or even deceive parents that they are competent to run an ABA or any other program. Such problems have led to horror stories from some parents. [ #endnote_abahorror1] [ #endnote_abahorror2]

Relationship Development Intervention

Relationship Development Intervention (RDI) is a research-based treatment program developed by Dr. Steven E. Gutstein. Whereas ABA aims to teach social skills directly, RDI focuses on building the "dynamic intelligence" that underlies the acquisition of those social skills in neurotypical children. It also focuses on the building blocks of motivation by developing episodic memory (seen as impaired in autism) and filling it with the child's own personal stories of competence and mastery. RDI emphasizes declarative (as opposed to imperative) communication, and aims for an appropriate balance of verbal and nonverbal communication. Dr. Gutstein claims that 70% of his patients improved their ADOS score within 18 months, which is unprecedented (it was previously thought that improvement on the ADOS was impossible), and that a similar proportion are able to enter school without a shadow teacher or other personal assistant.

Son-Rise

The Son-Rise program was developed by Samahria & Barry Neil Kaufman, who founded the Option Institute to promulgate their more general philosophy upon which the Son-Rise program is partially based, and to provide training in this treatment approach. It is a home-based program with emphasis on eye contact, accepting the child without judgment, and engaging the child in a noncoercive way. The Association for Science in Autism Treatment (ASAT) [ #endnote_asatonline] maintains a Description of the Son-Rise Program [ #endnote_asatsonrise] .

Autism and computing

Many studies have shown that computers help calm autistic children and help them communicate, [ #endnote_atcomputerstudy] and that often autistic children take to computers more quickly than non-autistic people. However, evidence suggesting that computers help autistic children communicate without computers is less promising, and autistic children are not immune to the effects of overuse of computers. One can deduce from this that autistic children often communicate better through e-mail than normal speech, but in rare cases the reverse can be true also. Some groups have proposed more precise scientific reasons for why this happens. One such group, the nonprofit Autism and Computing [ #endnote_AandC2] , claims that autism is monotropism (as stated in an above section), and they argue that computers provide an easy way of joining attention tunnels (a.k.a. undivided attention) with minimal discomfort, circumventing some of the most disabling features of autistic spectrum disorders.

Gluten-free, casein-free diet

Dr. Karl Ludwig Reichelt claims to have found peptides from casein and gluten that worsen the symptoms of autistic children. These peptides are casomorphines and gluten exorphines, which influence the brain. According to Dr. Reichelt, significant improvement has been seen in the symptoms of some of his patients with autism who had been put on a diet that omits these peptides. The diet is called the gluten-free, casein-free diet. Some physicians see diet as a central part of the treatment, but in addition to many other treatments at the same time [ #endnote_awwhatisdan] .

Sociology

Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of sociology that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture possible with it. In addition, there are several communities being formed within the autistic community, and in recent times they have become a bit polarized.

Community

:For more details on this topic, see Autistic community. Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups. Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed pro-cure, those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed anti-cure, and the many people caught in the middle of the two. In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the "anti-cure" movement sent a letter to the United Nations demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a mental disability or disease. Websites such as autistics.org present the view of the anti-cure group. There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups. Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online. In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism, much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example. 2002 was declared Autism Awareness Year in the United Kingdom this idea was initiated by Ivan and Charika Corea, parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the British Institute of Brain Injured Children, Disabilities Trust, National Autistic Society, Autism London and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of British Prime Minister Tony Blair and parliamentarians of all parties in the Palace of Westminster.

Culture

:For more details on this topic, see Autistic culture. With the recent increases in autism rates, an autistic culture has begun to develop. Autistic culture is much akin to deaf culture, which says that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured, i.e., "anti-cure". There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just "autistic culture". It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married. Often, it is to another person with autism, although this is not always the case. Many times this is due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not it is due to more compatibility with personality types. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common. Interests with autistic people and so-called "geeks" or "nerds" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most "technical" of situations.

Autistic adults

Temple Grandin, one of the more successful adults with autism. Photograph courtesy Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold. Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social programs often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline. In the United States, the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals.

Autistic savants

The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study. Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film Rain Man), most autistic people are not savants. Calendar calculators and fast programming skills are the most common form. The famous example is Daniel Tammet, the subject of the documentary film The Brain Man [ #endnote_guardianbrainman] (Kim Peek, one of the inspirations for Dustin Hoffman's character in the film Rain Man, is not autistic). "Bright Splinters of the Mind" is a book that explores this issue further.

Other pervasive developmental disorders

Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are Rett syndrome, Childhood disintegrative disorder, and Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. Some of the these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely seperate conditions.

Rett syndrome

Rett syndrome is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. Physical, occupational, and speech therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and speech. Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate [ #endnote_nihrett] . Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum [ #endnote_brighttotsrett] .

Childhood disintegrative disorder

Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour. This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system [ #endnote_yalecdd] [ #endnote_nihcdd] .

Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified

Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a subthreshold condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis [ #endnote_yalepddnos] .

See also

* General :* Early Childhood Autism :* Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders * Groups :* Aspies For Freedom :* National Alliance for Autism Research * Controversy :* Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum :* Controversies in autism :* Ethical challenges to autism treatment * Lists :* List of autism-related topics :* List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum :* List of notable people with autism spectrum disorders

References

* " Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960)". Accessed on July 30, 2005. * }} (2002) . Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder|1|2=]= , Autism , 6 (2) : 149-157 * }} (1995) . Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial|1|2=]= , Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 34 : 1092-1095 * Ewald, Paul: Plague Time , Popular Science, April 2001. * " PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders)". PANDAS & PITAND Syndromes. URL accessed on July 30, 2005. * " Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald". Microbes -- Friend or Foe?. URL accessed on July 30, 2005. * " M.I.N.D. Institute Study Confirms Autism Increase". U.C. Davis. URL accessed on March 6, 2005. * As autism cases soar, a search for clues , Newsweek, February 24 2005 . * Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases , New York Times, January 26 2004 . * }} (2002) . The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising?|1|2=]= , Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews , 8 (3) : 151 61 ( abstract) * }} (2002 Jun) . The changing prevalence of autism in California|1|2=]= , Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 32 (3) : 207-15 ( abstract) * Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp.

Footnotes

# ^ " BehaveNet autism description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " BehaveNet aspergers description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " CMU autism description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Neanderthal theory." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " empathising-systemising (E-S) theory." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Autistic poetry example." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ }} (May 2005) . Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism|1|2=]= , Autism , 9 (2) : 139-56 Online PDF version from autismandcomputing.org.uk # ^ " Autism and Computing." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Aspies for Freedom." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Complex Gene Interactions Account for Autism Risk." Accessed August 10, 2005. # ^ }} (September 2005) . Identification of Significant Association and Gene-Gene Interaction of GABA Receptor Subunit Genes in Autism|1|2=]= , The American Journal of Human Genetics , 77 (3) : 477-88 ( abstract) # ^ " empathising-systemising (E-S) theory." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ }} (2004) . Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children|1|2=]= , Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry , 45 : 1-13 # ^ }} (24 May 2003) . The Essential Difference|1|2=]= , The New Scientist , 178 (2396) : 54 # ^ " Challenges to Brain Testosterone Theory." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Wakefield conflict." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ }} (1998) . MMR and autism|1|2=]= , Autism , 2 : 423-4 # ^ }} (Nov 7 2002) . Population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism|1|2=]= , N Engl J Med. , 347 (19) : 1477-82 # ^ " Autism Coach Immunization Poll." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Deadly Immunity." Accessed July 25, 2005. # ^ " Rimland mercury theory." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ Silberman, Steve: The Geek Syndrome , Wired, December 2001 . # ^ " Autism Society of America ABA study." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " ABA and autistics controversy." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " ABA Horror story 1." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " ABA Horror story 2." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " ASAT Online." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " ASAT Online - Son-Rise." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Autism and Computers Department of Education study." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Autism and Computing." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Gluten and Casien-free diet with other treatments." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Guardian "Brain Man" article." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " NIH Rett description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Bright Tots Rett description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " Yale CDD description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " NIH CDD description." Accessed July 30, 2005. # ^ " PDD-NOS at Yale." Accessed August 22, 2005.

External links

Wiktionary-logo-en.png Look up autism on Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * General :* EricDigests.org - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999) * Blogs :* AboutAutism.blogspot.com - 'Autism News and More' :* AdventuresInAutism.blogspot.com - 'Adventures in Autism' :* About.Com - 'Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders', Adelle Jameson Tilton, About.com * Organizations :* Autism.org - 'Center for the Study of Autism', Autism Research Institute (founded by Bernard Rimland) :* Autism-Society.org - Autism Society of America * Resources :* Public Autism Resource and Information Service - 'PARIS: directory of UK Autism services' :* Autism-Resources.com - 'Autism Resources: offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome' :* AutismToday.com - 'Autism Today: everything you need to know about autism' Albedo 697318 798288 1487579 698070 41644 9426 142440 50650 10779 41464 9228 19331 208430 12399 224310 549072 105445 624 39389 30579 34061 28191 3383 50047 75654 86359 66722 12435 8098 40630 478741 741 11545 12395 47525 28033 57763 567472 15030 1263418 http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&hl=en http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671 http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm : For other uses, see (disambiguation). The albedo is a measure of reflectivity of a surface or body. It is the ratio of electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in climatology and astronomy. This ratio depends on the frequency of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of visible light. It also depends on the angle of incidence of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo. Earth has an average albedo of 31% whereas the albedo of the Moon is about 12%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content. Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. The next highest albedo belongs to Alex. Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease global warming. The "classical" example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of insolation; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics.

Some examples of albedo effects

Fairbanks, Alaska

According to the National Climatic Data Center's GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at Fairbanks, Alaska, is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of pine trees and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late winter months, when solar radiation is greater.

The tropics

Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more snow falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When Brazilian ranchers cut down dark, tropical rainforest trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round.

Small scale effects

Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of heatstroke than those who wear white clothes.

Pine forests

The albedo of a pine forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense swampland averages between 9% and 14%. Deciduous trees average about 13%. A grassy field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A desert or large beach usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N].

Urban areas

Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler.

Trees

Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to (increase albedo and thereby) cool (?) the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming .

Snow

Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over Antarctica they average a little more than 80%. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo feedback). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of global warming.

Clouds

Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. Climate models have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the greenhouse effect, "all" we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds. Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the September 11 attacks, after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 C increase in the diurnal temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (see: contrail).

Aerosol effects

Aerosol (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as CCNs and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain .

Black carbon

Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the IPCC say that their "estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m -2 (from +0.1 W m -2 in the SAR)) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m -2 ". . Abu Dhabi 981587 2443919 989351 1008870 892776 178433 393639 34749 803 275589 69328 181337 24761 34548 287078 212131 34570 211583 34571 34614 680116 23195 34953 34748 140612 2293973 323235 119049 1129854 178427 31834 47858 22316 25186 35823 30432 11893 35522 61111 146872 27992 8204 34691 16090 156371 1254 34671 15787 34751 22401 2391687 576862 34672 34664 529536 286960 34717 11162 63121 239038 39208 8143 25126 1900332 3452 51138 40029 17845 19849 34648 295109 276513 34550 1724427 14533 5665 228246 24949 15986 1612432 247922 186190 65724 16043 15785 27529 22332 19345 15642 10845 487794 12701 13022 72487 1191303 2210627 1304112 2349577 168320 153903 434925 434928 210589 434929 http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=24.4667_N_54.3667_E_ http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html http://www.abudhabi.com/ http://www.adcci-uae.com/ http://www.adnoc.com/ http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ http://www.adias-uae.com http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ http://www.careeruae.net/ http://columbia.tfd.com/Abu+Dhabi Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003) 300px 300px 300px A View of Hilton Baynunah, the tallest hotel in Abu Dhabi and the Second tallest building in Abu Dhabi. Shaikh Zaid, 1967 Abu Dhabi (Arabic: Ab aby) is the largest of the seven emirates that comprise the United Arab Emirates and was also the largest of the former Trucial States. Abu Dhabi is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the capital of the country, in north central UAE. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% expatriate population. Abu Dhabi city is located at } 24.4667° N 54.3667° E . Al Ain is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of more than 200,000 and located 150 kilometres inland.

History

Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the 3rd millennium B.C. and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late 18th century, who also assumed control of Dubai. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways. Into the mid-20th century, the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of Al Ain and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months. Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts. The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings. In 1939, Sheikh Shakhbut bin Dhiyab granted Petroleum concessions, and oil was first found in 1958. At first, oil money had a marginal impact. A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development. His brother, Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan, saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi. The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On August 6, 1966, with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler. See generally, Al-Fahim, M, From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi, Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1. With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the United Arab Emirates. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional mud-brick huts were rapidly replaced with banks, boutiques and modern highrises.

Current Ruler

His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan is the hereditary emir and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

Postal History

Now part of the United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the Trucial States on the so-called Pirate Coast of eastern Arabia between Oman and Qatar. The Trucial States as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000. The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761. The name Trucial States arose from treaties made with Great Britain in 1820 which ensured a condition of truce in the area and the suppression of piracy and slavery. The treaty expired on December 31 1966. The decision to form the UAE was made on July 18 1971 and the federation was founded on 1 August 1972, although the inaugural UAE stamps were not issued until 1 January 1973. Oil production began on Das Island after prospecting during 1956-1960. Das Island is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well offshore, about 100 miles north of the mainland. Oil production on the mainland began in 1962. As a major oil producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive financial wealth. Investment in long-term construction projects and the establishment of a finance sector has led to the area becoming a centre of commerce which may well secure its lasting importance when the oil resources are exhausted. In December 1960, postage stamps of British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia were supplied to the construction workers on Das Island but the postal service was administered via the agency office in Bahrain. The mail was also postmarked Bahrain so there was no clear indication that a letter had come from Das Island. On March 30 1963, a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the Trucial States definitives. Mail from Das Island continued to be administered by Bahrain but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi Trucial States postmark. The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a definitive series of March 30 1964 depicting Shaikh Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan. There were eleven values under the Indian currency that was used of 100 naye paise = 1 rupee. The range of values was 5 np to 10 rupees. Despite the introduction of these definitives, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and Das Island until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn. A post office was opened on Das Island on 6 January 1966 and this ended the Bahrain service. Mail from Das Island was now handled within Abu Dhabi. When the treaty with Great Britain expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new currency of 1000 fils = 1 dinar and took over its own postal administration, including the Das Island office. The earlier issues were subject to surcharges in this currency and replacement definitives were released depicting the new ruler Shaikh Zaid. Issues continued until introduction of UAE stamps in 1973. In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Admirable restraint was shown, in comparison with others of the Trucial States, and the majority of stamps are relevant to Abu Dhabi, which makes it well worth collecting. Source: Encyclopaedia of Postal History

Climate

Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months June through September are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from October to May. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of Al Ain enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to sporadic rainfall.

Transport

Abu Dhabi International Airport serves this city. The local time is GMT + 4 hours.

Trivia

The cartoon cat Garfield would often put his nemesis, the kitten Nermal, in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield: "Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go". Ironically, there is an active non-profit society named Feline Friends in Abu Dhabi and the other towns in the UAE which specialises in finding homes for abandoned or stray cats and kittens. Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

See also

*Mina' Zayid, the port of Abu Dhabi. *Al Ain *Marawah *Postal Authorities

External links

* Encyclopaedia of Postal History * Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf * abudhabi.com * Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry * Abu Dhabi National Oil Company * SPE history, with oil details * Abu Dhabi postal history * ADIAS, Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey * Time Out Abu Dhabi, Guide to life in Abu Dhabi * Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates * Abu Dhabi from the Columbia Encyclopedia --58.164.131.117 11:50, 4 November 2005 (UTC) A 1476950 18306 9249 3783 5701 8123 9222 10831 12255 13478 14778 15774 16717 17850 19191 21290 22314 23342 25185 25618 27173 30071 31808 32437 33180 34142 34243 34425 168313 5307 50953 1081969 42686 69874 13446 1780316 66540 172450 26919 929 40173 715909 37353 14532 54045 17730 31217 34643 527604 100824 597263 597014 12872 596998 14761 32693 496721 48203 159029 59045 18935 3933 31742 73468 18912 13263 238686 586 9773 839715 13191 34138 3954 63539 89108 5377 20354 1004 1005 5213 274393 27701 45146 22194 8146 63815 9252 247805 245206 9663 4198 32496 48574 9248 10571 34610 11162 153897 162468 11887 24564 11884 25401 14533 418985 576 166105 1021 17551 37354 34633 19636 76174 18831 280582 208151 21170 50077 40276 1158 500004 18957 55309 26764 772 26872 6207 99652 26874 60631 74366 18839 412388 22026 2828410 172121 944645 552462 21525 32512 23083 142293 23604 24388 903360 51549 31882 38776 22523 5135 21980 188649 143276 525730 98369 165709 420342 156658 1191303 748872 470447 167199 167200 167224 249009 194818 184311 184309 2247682 55030 2700577 2556481 1878498 35180 35181 35182 35183 35184 35185 35186 35187 34861 The letter A is the first (1st) letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English is a, plural a's or aes. |}

History

The letter A probably started as a pictogram of an ox head in Egyptian hieroglyphs or the Proto-semitic alphabet. By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet's letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the Hebrew aleph. When the Ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the glottal stop that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, so they used the sign for the vowel / / , and changed its name to alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to what was Italy and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write Latin, and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern Latin alphabet used to write many languages, including English.

Typography

The modern lowercase letter a derives from Greek handwriting, which evolved from a form similar to the current capital to a circular shape with a projection by the 4th century.

Usage

In English, the letter A by itself usually denotes the lax open front unrounded vowel (IPA / /) as in pad, the open back unrounded vowel (IPA / / ) as in father, or, in concert with a later e, the diphthong /e / (though the actual pronunciation depends on the dialect) as in ace, due to effects of the Great vowel shift. In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an open back unrounded vowel (IPA / / ), or an open central unrounded vowel (IPA /a/). In the International Phonetic Alphabet, variants of the letter A denote various vowels. In X-SAMPA, capital A denotes the open back unrounded vowel and lowercase a denotes the open front unrounded vowel. A also is the English indefinite article, extended to an before a vowel.

Alternative representations

In the NATO phonetic alphabet the letter A is Alfa (which may also be spelled Alpha in English-only environments). In international Morse code the letter A is DitDah: · - In Braille the letter A is represented as (in Unicode), the dot pattern: 75px

Computing

In Unicode the capital A is codepoint U+0041 and the lowercase a is U+0061. In Hex, A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in binary, 01010 The ASCII code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in binary 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are " #65; " and " #97; " for upper and lower case respectively.

Meanings for A

* In biochemistry, A is the symbol for alanine and adenosine. * In calendars, A is often an abbreviation for the months April and August. * In computing, ** a is the HTML element for an anchor tag. ** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image. ** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within string patterns. ** A:\ is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in CP/M-based operating systems such as DOS. ** A is a security division ("Verified Protection") in the TCSEC. * In education, a grade of A typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. (sometimes coupled with a plus/minus sign - i.e., A+ or A-, or a number - e.g., A1) * In electronics, ** A is a standard size of battery. ** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a vacuum tube. * In English, the word "a" is an indefinite article, see A, an * In Esperanto, -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language). * In film, A is an Italian film made in 1969; see A (film). * In finance, A is the U.S. ticker symbol for Agilent Technologies. * In Greek, a- is a prefix (alpha privativum) meaning "not" or "devoid of", used in many borrowed words in English, German and Romance languages. * In India A is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults. * In international licence plate codes, A stands for Austria. * In international paper sizes, A is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size. * In logic, **the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form "all x is y". The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative "some x is y", the universal negative "no x is y", and the particular negative "some x is not y". The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin verbs affirmo (or AIo), "I assert", and nego, "I deny". The use of the symbols dates from the 13th century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. **In symbolic logic, the symbol (an inverted letter A) is the universal quantifier. * In mathematics, **A is often used as a digit meaning ten in hexadecimal and other positional numeral systems with a radix of 11 or greater, **blackboard bold \mathbb{A} ( in Unicode) sometimes represents the algebraic numbers. **In the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits. * In medicine, A is one of the human blood types. * In the SI system of units, ** A is the symbol for the ampere or amp, the SI base unit of electric current. ** a, atto, is the SI prefix meaning 10 -18 ** a is the symbol for the are, a unit of surface area equal to 100 square metres. * In music, ** A is a Pitch class or note, see A (musical note). ** A, or "side A", refers to the top or first side of a vinyl record. ** A is a British rock band; see A (band). * In nutrition, A is a vitamin. * In a deck of playing cards, the letter A is used to mark each of the Aces. * In photography, most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed. * In political theory, a circumscribed "A" is an anarchist symbol. * As the first letter of a postal code, * In American Major League Baseball, the Oakland Athletics are often simply referred to as the "A's". ** In Canada, A stands for Newfoundland and Labrador. * As a timezone, A is the military designation for Coordinated Universal Time+1, also known as CET or Central European Time. ** A is an album by Jethro Tull; see A (album).

See also

Wikisource Wikisource, as part of the 1911 Encyclopedia Wikiproject, has original text related to this article: A Wiktionary-logo-en.png Look up on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Alpha, Cyrillic A, ª , À, Á, Â, Ã, Ä (Ae), Å (Aa), Æ, |} Alabama 705602 2837635 142713 2446582 436053 48831 650898 57690 967014 85427 1286 375377 416328 375231 375234 63881 9249 87513 74366 432383 87525 966837 497704 8851 34966 718841 481638 143276 47548 1416612 716439 32185 222030 401788 346365 351590 346404 76099 56134 1342980 431030 461407 1247916 913579 3081692 179553 31882 39473 21217 1461870 50490 92809 7222 57190 2591041 22388 10581 9239 20952 38639 35822 35803 34948 35523 15847 34680 2581606 11363 7023 863 34623 34788 34573 34545 2709449 36656 1221238 148576 32070 34618 55040 2791379 563367 34771 25860 166202 161294 723054 31988 34725 34672 34664 723104 34550 454963 407755 4792 34655 307452 259897 15992 34661 35524 1297381 2013039 2154 1726006 1285 23264 19579 13166 1765158 62529 36530 202482 18947 218330 36163 2222885 23893 627 23197 694135 5307 55602 36806 36813 19714 62784 14543 24524 59399 33550 20381 38393 23883 499238 2197239 4745 148898 2402376 243749 56120 974923 699390 290327 1883734 2064747 874222 988887 699565 1655452 327945 1811002 1418753 1507084 1002093 1969565 379617 1905754 2292327 1167632 638553 1856710 1557723 744258 1225887 677955 293288 414490 327950 510049 862380 498545 1156187 499466 499499 2425212 416737 412891 807091 347446 1349376 2657868 1193376 1190843 1006137 1020378 57070 24077 1301165 1301018 676736 2109618 3041572 104854 103733 104844 104852 104633 104829 104690 104786 105167 249512 58263 76923 76924 76925 76926 76928 76932 76933 76938 76943 76957 76945 76951 76955 57769 77370 77369 77368 77371 77372 77375 77377 77379 77384 77381 77827 77828 77834 77365 77837 77838 77841 77842 77855 77872 77873 77857 77868 77870 80771 80775 80779 80780 80782 80783 80784 80787 80788 80795 80796 81291 58119 77367 81299 81301 81303 81306 81308 81310 87445 81316 81317 81318 81320 81321 81322 81324 77366 445321 624 1961 1930 5407 5399 6466 7930 10829 48830 13270 14607 14849 14853 14589 16716 16846 18130 19977 18858 1645518 18859 19590 19065 19571 19978 21647 21216 21134 21648 21649 1551706 21650 21651 22199 22489 22198 23332 25410 27956 26746 30395 29810 31716 32578 32432 33106 32905 33127 33611 177645 108956 509766 578 3453 11974 13414 15683 15704 16664 19250 21312 21402 23382 23041 32135 33189 http://www.alabama.gov/ http://www.au.af.mil/ http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab15.pdf http://alabama.gov/ http://www.touralabama.org/ http://www.archives.state.al.us/ http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm This article is about the U.S. State; for other meanings, see (disambiguation). |- |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|State nickname: Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie , Yellowhammer State |- |colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Map of the U.S. with Alabama highlighted |- |colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"|Other U.S. States |- |Capital|| Montgomery |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Largest city|| Birmingham |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Governor|| Bob Riley (R) |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Senators|| Richard Shelby (R) Jeff Sessions (R) |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Official language(s) || English |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Area || 52,423 mi²/135,775 km (30 th ) |- style="vertical-align:top;" | - Land || 50,750 mi²/131,442 km |- style="vertical-align:top;" | - Water || 1,673 mi²/4,333 km (3.19%) |- |colspan="2"|Population (2000) |- | - Population || 4,447,100 (23 rd ) |- | - Density || 33.84 /km (26 th ) |- |colspan="2"|Admission into Union |- | - Date || December 14, 1819 |- | - Order || 22 nd |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Time zone|| Central: UTC-6/DST-5 |- |Latitude||30°13'N to 35°N |- |Longitude||84°51'W to 88°28'W |- style="vertical-align:top;" |Width || 190 mi/306 km |- |Length || 330 mi/531 km |- |Elevation || |- style="vertical-align:top;" | - Highest point || Mount Cheaha 2,408 ft/734 m |- | - Mean || 499 ft/152 m |- | - Lowest point || 0 ft/0 m |- |colspan="2"|Abbreviations |- | - USPS || AL |- | - ISO 3166-2 || US-AL |- |Web site|| www.alabama.gov |} Alabama is a state located in the southern United States.

History

Main article: History of Alabama The memory of the Native American presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among Native American people once living in present Alabama were Alabama (Alibamu), Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Koasati, and Mobile. Trade with the Northeast via the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period (1000 B.C.-A.D. 700) and continued until European contact. Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed. The French established the first European settlement in the state with the establishment of Mobile in 1702. Southern Alabama was French from 1702 1763, part of British West Florida from 1763 1780, and part of Spanish West Florida from 1780 1814. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from 1763 1783 and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in 1814), Alabama became the 22nd state in 1819. The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861 and became the Alabama Republic and on February 18 1861 became a Confederate state. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the Civil War. After the war a provisional government was set up in 1865 and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 1868. The cradle of the Confederacy during the Civil War, Alabama was at stage center in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

Law and government

Main article: Law and Government of Alabama

Local & County Government

Alabama has 67 counties, each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the Alabama Constitution, all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no home rule. Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning.

Political Climate

The current governor of the state is Bob Riley and the two U.S. senators are Jefferson B. Sessions III and Richard C. Shelby (all three from the Republican Party). The current Alabama Constitution was adopted in 1901. During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1877, the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of Rutherford B. Hayes as President-elect. White Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the "Solid South," a one-party system in which the Democratic Party became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running. From 1876 through 1956, Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points. In 1960, Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to segregationist candidate Harry F. Byrd. In 1964, the national Republican Party began to win more votes in the South by following a "Southern Strategy" which emphasized "states' rights" and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party. The first such candidate was conservative Barry Goldwater, who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama. In 1968, Alabama supported native son and American Independent Party (Segregationist) candidate George Wallace. The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner Jimmy Carter in 1976. Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state. In 2004, George W. Bush won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were Black Belt counties, where African Americans are in the majority. *U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama

Geography

Main article: Geography of Alabama Map of Alabama Alabama is the 30 th largest state in the United States with 135,775 km 2 (52,423 mi 2 ) of total area. 3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23 rd in the amount of surface water. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle plain with a general incline towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. Alabama generally ranges in elevation from sea level at Mobile Bay, to a little more than 1800 feet or 550 meters in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast. The highest point is Mount Cheaha.

Economy

According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2003 total gross state product was $132 billion. The per capita income for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's agricultural outputs are poultry and eggs, cattle, nursery stock, peanuts, cotton, vegetables, milk, and soybeans. Its industrial outputs are paper, lumber and wood products, mining, rubber and plastic products, transportation equipment and apparel.

Demographics

:For more details on this topic, see Demographics of Alabama. As of 2004, Alabama's population was estimated to be 4,530,182. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000).

Race and ancestry

The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: | width="200px" valign="bottom" style="padding-left:0.5em; padding-bottom:1em; font-size:smaller;" | Notes: :* Not available; mixed race was first reported in the census of 2000. : Hispanics may be of any race and are included in applicable race categories. |} The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), English (7.8%), Irish (7.7%), German (5.7%), and Scotch-Irish (2.0%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or African American.

Religion

The major religions of Alabama: *Christian 92% **Protestant 79% ***Baptist 49% ***Methodist 10% ***Presbyterian 3% ***Episcopalian 2% ***Church of God 2% ***Church of Christ 2% ***Pentecostal 2% ***Lutheran 2% ***Other Protestant 7% **Catholic 13% *Other religions 1% *Non-religious 7%

Colleges and Universities (incomplete)

:Main article: List of colleges and universities in Alabama

Culture and interests

*Famous Alabamians *Music of Alabama *Alabama Public Television, state wide public TV network *List of television stations in Alabama *Alabama Shakespeare Festival *U.S. Space Camp *Rickwood Field *Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail *Visionland Theme Park *Vulcan statue

References

*Pickett, Albert J. (1851) History of Alabama: And Incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi, from the Earliest Period. Charleston, South Carolina: Walker and James. *Armes, Ethel. (1910) "The Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama." Cambridge, Massachusetts: The University Press. *Adams, George I.; Butts, Charles; Stephenson, L. W.; & Cooke, Wythe (1926). Geology of Alabama. Geological Survey of Alabama, Special Report No. 14. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. *Carmer, Carl. (1934) Stars Fell on Alabama. New York, New York: The Literary Guild. *Workers of the Writer's Program of the Works Progress Administration. (1941) Alabama: A Guide to the Deep South. American Guide Series. Montgomery, Alabama: Alabama State Planning Commission. *U.S. Census Bureau. ** Alabama QuickFacts. Geographic and demographic information. ** Alabama - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1800 to 1990 (PDF)

External links

* Alabama.gov - Official website. * TourAlabama.org - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel * Archives.state.al.us - Alabama Department of Archives and History ** All About Alabama at the Archives Department site * Code of Alabama 1975 - at the Alabama Legislature site * Alabama QuickFacts from the U.S. Census Bureau

Notes

The phrase The Heart of Dixie is required by state law to be included on standard state license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase Stars Fell on Alabama. |} Achilles 838986 1589578 693364 11961 843720 47401 34398 574742 78881 22058 594 63325 840617 444886 13815 1418970 30058 22537 22349 15885 77335 209446 80990 77363 79131 31255 20634 80172 52000 37004 29067 7401 274099 722345 13706 76749 13633 14813 187260 14540 48125 51027 38419 2618 26113 245632 77727 502785 55804 37552 22948 23250 28745 380167 1369 42183 757221 85262 78976 9808 83127 77802 48489 216781 39438 45748 83630 2337802 24132 78986 1247736 78380 360254 1269346 213879 13993 30059 80598 7016 1544 80599 80601 1568 49124 13207 81949 14388 469691 79328 149950 35814 97275 81762 187749 81972 1695 78594 63416 78987 390772 7969 18373 82917 38260 783 81735 540271 3386 81712 39245 34635 2023 20224 9346 697734 31347 26984 51355 79616 70870 59302 58667 22954 77097 80936 80462 35070 48177 34669 59610 1727257 17909 34661 198683 679107 1098679 2254896 34672 34717 168017 34658 34636 36163 44849 323715 35524 620653 85577 37802 83101 2842461 314182 8169 31140 538980 1191303 http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ :For other uses, see Achilles (disambiguation). In Greek mythology, χιλλεύς , transliterated to Akhilleus or Achilleus in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to Achilles, appearing in Etruscan as Achle, was a hero (ancient Greek heros, "defender") of the Trojan War, the greatest and the most central character of Homer's Iliad.

The Name

The very first two lines of that magnificent and defining poem of ancient Greek culture (indeed, probably of the preceding Indo-European culture), read (in transliteration): :"Menin aeide thea, Peleiadeo Akhileos :oulomenen, he muri' Akhaiois alge' etheken," :Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus, :the destructive wrath, that brought a thousand griefs upon the Achaeans," In these lines we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a praenomen and a patronymic, the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides: Achilles the son of Peleus. The system is similar to the names used by Scandinavians before modern times, such as Leif Erikson. It is no doubt much older than either culture. Similarly, Peleus' name would be Peleus Aiakides, Peleus the son of Aiakos. There is no nomen gentile, as among the Romans, indicating that clan names might not be Indo-European after all. There is a very strong derivation of Achilles devised by Leonard Palmer and expostulated in the first work cited below, by Gregory Nagy. The name is Indo-European: "whose laos has akhos", where laos is a corps of soldiers and akhos is grief. As it is used in the poem, which is stuffed full of irony, there is a double entendre: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.

Birth

Achilles was the son of the mortal Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in Phthia (southeast Thessaly), and the sea nymph Thetis. Zeus and Poseidon were rivals for the hand of Thetis. That is until Prometheus the fire bringer revealed that if one of these gods wed Thetis, she would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit. When Achilles was born, Thetis had tried to make Achilles immortal by dipping him in the river Styx, but forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable. (See Achilles' tendon.) Homer, however, deliberately makes no mention of this; Achilles cannot be a hero if he is not at risk. Homer, however, does mention his being wounded, although not seriously, in the Iliad. In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Peleus gave him (together with his young friend Patroclus) to Chiron the Centaur, on Mt. Pelion, to raise.

Achilles in the Trojan War

Telephus

When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the battle, Achilles wounded Telephus. The wound would not heal and Telephus asked an oracle who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". According to others' reports about Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis, pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to help heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound and the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus healed. This is an example of sympathetic magic.

During the Trojan War

“The Rage of Achilles” by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo Achilles is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the Iliad. He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life. Not his own clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious (kleos) and not really of others. His anger is absolute. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is the main theme of the Iliad. Achilles' charioteer's name was Automedon.

Troilus

According to Dares Phrygius' Account of the Destruction of Troy, while this youngest son of Priam and Hecuba (some say that it was Apollo who fathered Troilus on Hecuba) was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose "loveliness of form" was described by Ibycus as being like "gold thrice refined"). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of Apollo. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. (Tzetzes, scholiast on Lycophron). At the time Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had reached his twentieth year, Troy would have been invincible. (First Vatican Mythographer)

Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus

The vast majority of ancient Greek artifacts indicate they were regarded as homosexual lovers, usually in the context of the religious institution of homosexuality as seen in other mythological tales. ''See discussion at Homosexuality in the Iliad Achilles took twenty-three towns outside Troy, including Lyrnessos, where he captured Briseis to keep as a concubine. Meanwhile, Agamemnon took a woman named Chryseis and taunted her father, Chryses, a priest of Apollo, when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss. This action sparked the central plot of the Iliad: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of Zeus, and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior. Achilles is visited by Odysseus, Ajax, and Phoenix who attempt to persuade him to return to battle, but Achilles still refuses to fight. Once the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by Hector, he agrees to allow Patroclus to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day Patroclus is killed and stripped of the armor by the Trojan hero Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his lover, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and berates him for excessive grief, reminding him it is a fine thing to sleep with women too. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from Hephaestus, and he returns to the fighting, killing Hector. He desecrates the body, dragging it behind his chariot before the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive funeral rites. When Priam, the king of Troy and Hector's father, comes secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relents; in one of the most moving scenes of the Iliad, he receives Priam graciously and allows him to take the body away. The greatness of Achilles lies in not just being the greatest Greek fighter ever, but in knowing the choice provided to him by Destiny. His mother Thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the Trojan War, he would enjoy a long and a happy life. If Achilles fought, however, he would die before the walls of Troy but assure an everlasting glory, surpassing that of all other heroes. He had made the choice, and coming face to face with it showed his greatness.

Zanthus

During the Trojan War, Xanthos, one of Achilles' horses, was rebuked by Achilles for allowing Patroclus to be killed. Xanthus responded by saying (Hera temporarily gave him voice to do so) that a god and a mortal had killed Patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill Achilles too.

Memnon, Cycnus, Penthesilea, and the death of Achilles

Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles (Book 18), by Thomas Banks, English, 1778 Victoria and Albert Museum Shortly after the death of Hector, Achilles defeated Memnon of Ethiopia, Cycnus of Colonae and the Amazonian warrior Penthesilia (with whom Achilles also had an affair in some versions). As predicted by Hector with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by Paris either by an arrow to the heel (which may have subsequently become fatally infected), or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting Polyxena, a princess of Troy. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield. His bones are mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games are held. Like Ajax, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the Danube.

The Fate of Achilles' armor

Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Ajax the Greater (Achilles' older cousin). They competed for it and Odysseus won. Ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades; he started killing cattle (thinking they were Greek soldiers), and then himself.

Other Stories About Achilles

After the Trojan War, Achilles sold Lycaon, son of Priam and Laothoe. Lycaon was later killed trying to escape. In the Odyssey, also by Homer, there is a passage where Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead. This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted. The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son. Alexander the Great, son of the Epiran princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea. Achilles fought and killed the Amazon Helene. Some also said he married Medea.

The Lost Play of Aeschylus

In the early 1990s a lost play by Aeschylus was discovered in the wrappings of a mummy in Egypt. The play, Achilles, was part of a trilogy about the Trojan War. It was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources, but had been lost for over 2,000 years. There is another lost play with Achilles as the main character, The Lovers of Achilles, by Sophocles.

Spoken-word myths (audio)

Achilles in Music

"Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by Manowar; from the album The Triumph of Steel, 1992, Atlantic Records. "Achilles Last Stand", by Led Zeppelin; from the album Presence, 1976, Atlantic Records; "Achilles' Revenge", by Warlord. * Achilles' Heel is an album by the indie rock band Pedro the Lion

Achilles in film

The role of Achilles has been played by: * Stanley Baker in Helen of Troy (1956) * Arturo Dominici in La Guerra di Troia (1962) * Derek Jacobi [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) (1995) * Steve Davislim in La Belle Hélène (TV, 1996) * Joe Montana in Helen of Troy (TV, 2003) * Brad Pitt in Troy (2004)

References

Homer, Iliad; Homer, Odyssey XI, 467-540; Apollodorus, Bibliotheke III, xiii, 5-8; Apollodorus, Epitome III, 14-V, 7; Ovid, Metamorphoses XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398; Ovid, Heroides III; Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica IV, 783-879; Dante, The Divine Comedy, Inferno, V.

Bibliography

* Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heros Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In Il Mito Greco, éd. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ; ** “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie, 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ; ** “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” Classical Quarterly, 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ; * Hélène Monsacré, Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère, Paris, Albin Michel, 1984; * Gregory Nagy: ** The Best of The Acheans. Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry, Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology', Illinois Classical Studies, 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic, Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University;

External links

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http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 April 15, 1865), sometimes called Abe Lincoln and nicknamed Honest Abe, the Rail Splitter, and the Great Emancipator, was the 16th President of the United States (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the Republican Party. Lincoln staunchly opposed the expansion of slavery into federal territories, and his victory in the 1860 presidential election further polarized the nation. Before his inauguration in March of 1861, seven Southern slave states seceded 1 from the United States, formed the Confederate States of America, and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the American Civil War. Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between Radical and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from War Democrats and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the Confederacy. His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the 1864 presidential campaign. He is sometimes criticized for issuing executive orders suspending habeas corpus, imprisoning opposing government officials, and ordering the arrest of a number of publishers. Some historians also argue that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions. The most important may have been setting the precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and a weakening of the powers of the individual state governments. This claim, however, is disputed as the federal government largely reverted to its former weakness after Reconstruction and the modern administrative state would only emerge with the New Deal some seventy years later. Lincoln is most famous for his role in ending slavery in the United States with the enactment of the Emancipation Proclamation as a pragmatic war measure which would set the stage for the complete abolition of the institution. Lincoln was also the president who declared Thanksgiving as a national holiday, established the U.S. Department of Agriculture (though not as a Cabinet-level department), revived national banking and banks, and admitted West Virginia and Nevada as states. He also encouraged efforts to expand white settlement in western North America, signing the Homestead Act (1862). Lincoln is usually ranked as one of the greatest presidents. He is criticized by some for overstepping the traditional bounds of executive power. Others fault him for his refusal to make efforts at compromise with the seceding states. Because of his role in ending slavery, and his guiding the Union to victory in the civil war, his assassination made him a martyr to millions of Americans.

Early life

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in a one-room log cabin on 348 acre (1.4 km ) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of Hardin County, Kentucky, then considered the frontier (now part of LaRue Co., in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of Hodgenville), to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, Abraham Lincoln, who was killed in 1786 in a conflict with local Indians. He was given just his grandfather's first and last name and was not given any middle name. Lincoln's parents were largely uneducated. Later, when Lincoln became more renowned, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of Lincoln's birth. In fact, Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the Sinking Spring Farm in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. Accordingly, from a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Money spent on the lawsuit contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km ) of a 230 acre (0.9 km ) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the Rolling Fork River, this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm. In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the Knob Creek farm. Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to Indiana, which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure. Historians believe that these problems motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney. In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to Spencer County, Indiana, he would state "partly on account of slavery" and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky (mostly derived from losing two homes and financing years of litigation). In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land along the Sangamon River on a site selected by Lincoln's father in Macon County, Illinois, near the present city of Decatur. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, canoeing down the Sangamon to homestead on his own in Sangamon County, Illinois (now in Menard County), in the village of New Salem. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to New Orleans via flatboat on the Sangamon, Illinois and Mississippi rivers. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time. Young Abraham Lincoln

Early career

Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the Illinois General Assembly as a member of the Whig Party. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the Sangamon River in the hopes of attracting steamboat traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the Illinois militia drawn from New Salem during the Black Hawk War, although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had "any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction." He later tried his hand at several business and political ventures, and failed at them all. He held an Illinois state liquor license and operated several taverns. Finally, after coming across the second volume of Sir William Blackstone's four-volume Commentaries on the Laws of England, he taught himself the law, and was admitted to the Illinois Bar in 1837. That same year, he moved to Springfield, Illinois and began to practice law with Stephen T. Logan. He became one of the most highly respected and successful lawyers in the state of Illinois, and became steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives, as a representative from Sangamon County, beginning in 1834. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was "founded on both injustice and bad policy." Lincoln shared a bed with Joshua Fry Speed from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), C.A. Tripp's 2005 biography, The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln, suggesting that their relationship may also have been sexual, has generated a great deal of controversy. In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with William Herndon, a fellow member of the Whig Party. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling Republican Party. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, Herndon's Lincoln.

Marriage

On November 4, 1842, at the age of 33, Lincoln married Mary Todd. The couple had four sons. *Robert Todd Lincoln: b. August 1, 1843, in Springfield, Illinois; d. July 26, 1926, in Manchester, Vermont. *Edward Baker Lincoln: b. March 10, 1846, in Springfield, Illinois; d. February 1, 1850, in Springfield, Illinois. (Named after a close friend of Lincoln's, Congressman Edward D. Baker.) *William Wallace Lincoln: b. December 21, 1850, in Springfield, Illinois; d. February 20, 1862, in Washington, D.C. *Thomas "Tad" Lincoln: b. April 4, 1853, in Springfield, Illinois; d. July 16, 1871, in Chicago, Illinois. Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only Jessie Lincoln had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on December 24, 1985.

Towards the presidency

Lincoln in 1846 or 1847 In 1846 Lincoln was elected to one term in the House of Representatives as a member of the United States Whig Party. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to Whig leader Henry Clay as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the war with Mexico, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for "military glory that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood." Lincoln was a key early supporter of Zachary Taylor's candidacy for the 1848 Whig Presidential nomination. When his term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of the Oregon Territory. He declined, returning instead to Springfield, Illinois where, although remaining active in Whig Party affairs in the state, he turned most of his energies to making a living at the bar. By the mid-1850s, Lincoln had acquired prominence in Illinois legal circles, especially through his involvement in litigation involving competing transportation interests both the river barges and the railroads. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad, for example, in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the ground that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the Illinois Supreme Court was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the Illinois Central Railroad. McLean County argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments. In addition, Lincoln worked on at least one criminal trial in 1858 when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong pro bono, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for when Lincoln used judicial notice, a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a Farmer's Almanac to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination for the would-be witness to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820, helped draw Lincoln back into electoral politics. It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on October 16, 1854 in Peoria, that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other free-soil orators of the day. Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, proposing popular sovereignty as the solution to the slavery impasse, had sponsored the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Many eastern Republicans had urged the nomination of Douglas for the United States Senate in 1858, since he was a Northern leader who had led the opposition to the Buchanan administration's push for the Lecompton Constitution which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech in which he stated, "A house divided against itself cannot stand." (This statement is spoken by Jesus in Matthew 12:25.) The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery. Lincoln was viewed as a heavy underdog against the popular Douglas. During his unsuccessful 1858 campaign for the Senate, Lincoln debated Douglas in a series of events which became a national discussion on the issues that were about to split the nation in two. During the debates, Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his Freeport Doctrine, which lost him further support among slave-holders and may have forced the eventual dissolution of the Democratic Party. Though Douglas was eventually reelected by the Illinois legislature (this was before the 17th Amendment), Lincoln's eloquence during the campaign transformed him into a national political star.

Election and early Presidency

"The Rail Candidate", political cartoon, 1860 Lincoln was chosen as the Republican candidate for several reasons: because his views on slavery were seen as more moderate; because of his Western origins (in contrast to his main rival for the nomination, the New Yorker William H. Seward), and because several other contenders had enemies within the party. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed "The Rail Splitter" by Republicans to emphasize Lincoln's humility and humble origins, though in fact Lincoln was quite wealthy at the time due to his successful law practice. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States, beating Douglas and two other major candidates. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South and won only 2 of 996 counties in the entire South. Even before Lincoln's election, leaders in the South made it clear that their states would leave the Union in response to a Lincoln victory. A total of seven states seceded before Lincoln took office, forming the Confederate States of America. President-elect Lincoln survived an assassination attempt in Baltimore, Maryland, and on February 23, 1861 arrived secretly in disguise to Washington, D.C. Southerners ridiculed Lincoln for this subterfuge, but the efforts at security may have been prudent. At Lincoln's inauguration on March 4, 1861, the Turners formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the president and the capital from rebel invasion. Photograph showing March 4, 1861 inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol In his First Inaugural Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments", arguing further that the purpose of the United States Constitution was "to form a more perfect union" than the Articles of Confederation which were explicitly perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution construed as a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed Corwin Amendment to the constitution, of which he was a driving force. This proposed amendment would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln, however, adamantly opposed the Crittenden Compromise, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the Missouri Compromise and extending it to California. Despite support for this compromise among moderate Republicans and across the nation, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego." Lincoln also spurned requests to appoint a Southerner to his cabinet (Sam Houston, at that time governor of Texas and supporting the Union but rejecting offered troops to prevent secession, being a prominent suggestion). Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing to compromise on the slavery expansion issue. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest. After Union troops at Fort Sumter were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called for more troops from each remaining state to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union", which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. In response, four more slave states seceded by May 1861, and splinter factions from Missouri and Kentucky joined the Confederacy by December.

Slavery and the Emancipation Proclamation

Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the Emancipation Proclamation draft on July 22, 1862. Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a moral evil. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. He believed that the Declaration of Independence's statement that "all men are created equal" should apply also to black slaves, and that slavery was a profound evil which should not spread to the Territories. Thus, he campaigned against the Kansas-Nebraska Act. However, Lincoln maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed, and he supported colonization, believing that freed black slaves were too different to live in the same society as white Americans. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position of emancipation in an 1864 letter to Albert G. Hodges See: Abraham Lincoln on slavery. Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved African Americans with the Emancipation Proclamation. However, territories and states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation. The proclamation initially freed only a few escaped slaves, but also enabled the freeing of slaves in territories captured after its proclamation. Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed. He later said: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution which abolished slavery. Politically, the Emancipation Proclamation did much to help the Northern cause; Lincoln's strong abolitionist stand finally convinced the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and other foreign countries that they could not support the South.

Important non-Civil War measures of Lincoln's first term

While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he only grew a beard the last few years of his life, at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell. Perhaps Lincoln's most important contribution as President, outside of his military leadership as Commander-in-Chief, was his signing of the Homestead Act in 1862, though Lincoln had little do with the drafting of the act or its passage in Congress. Considered by some to be the most important piece of legislation in American history, the Act made available millions of acres of government-held land in the Midwest for purchase at very low cost. Any male over the age of 21 could obtain a Homestead tract of 160 acres (647,000 m ) simply by filing a claim and paying a processing fee of $18. The land had then to be lived upon, built up, and improved, for a period of no less than five years. Many were more than willing to take up this challenge. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed by Lincoln in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural universities throughout the American states. Such universities often founded in Homesteading states -- provided education and know-how for masses of local Homesteaders. They helped found the concept of scientific agriculture and, perhaps more importantly, helped democratize American education. Like the Homestead Act, Lincoln had little to do with this act's framing or passage in Congress. After the "Sioux Uprising" of August 1862 in Minnesota, Lincoln was presented with 303 death warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who had taken part. Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved). Lincoln was strongly chastised for this action in Minnesota and throughout his administration because many felt that all 303 Native Americans should have been executed. Reaction in Minnesota was so strong concerning Lincoln's leniency toward the Native Americans that Republicans lost their political strength in the state in 1864. Lincoln's response was, "I could not afford to hang men for votes."

1864 election and Second Inauguration

After Lincoln's election, on March 4, 1865, he delivered his second inaugural address, which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the secessionists was within sight, slavery had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future.

Civil War and Reconstruction

Conducting the war effort

The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General George B. McClellan, who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and after the retirement of Winfield Scott in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful West Point graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his Peninsula Campaign, which involved capturing Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula between the James and York Rivers. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong Democrat who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his Harrison's Landing Letter, where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time, leading to Pope's being sent west to fight against the American Indians. Panicked by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's invasion of Maryland, Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the Battle of Antietam in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican Ambrose Burnside to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was embarrassingly routed at Fredericksburg, Joseph Hooker assumed command, but was routed at Chancellorsville in May 1863 and also relieved of command. After the Union victory at Gettysburg and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln made the fateful decision to appoint a new army commander: General Ulysses S. Grant, who was disfavored by Republican hardliners because he had been a Democrat, but who had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including Vicksburg and Chattanooga. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, "I cannot spare this man. He fights." Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864, using a strategy of a war of attrition, characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the Wilderness and Cold Harbor, but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the Siege of Petersburg and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865. Lincoln authorized Grant to use a scorched earth approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy factories, farms, and cities in the Shenandoah Valley, Georgia, and South Carolina. The damage in Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million. Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the Mississippi River and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war. Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the War Department telegraph office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During Jubal A. Early's raid into Washington, D.C., in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot observing the scenes of battle.

Homefront

Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and backwoods upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the Gettysburg Address, a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. While the featured speaker, orator Edward Everett, spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here." Lincoln's second inaugural address is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort. During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a blockade, suspended the writ of habeas corpus, spent money without congressional authorization, and frequently imprisoned accused Southern spies and sympathizers without trial. Some scholars have argued that Lincoln's political arrests extended to the highest levels of the government, including an attempted warrant for Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney, though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the Taney Arrest Warrant controversy). Lincoln was the only U.S. President to face a presidential election during a civil war (in 1864). The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and an electoral defeat appeared likely against the Democratic nominee and former general, George McClellan. Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody Overland Campaign that summer and the seemingly endless Siege of Petersburg. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of Atlanta by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected.

Reconstruction

The reconstruction of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Republicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the Wade-Davis Bill, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee during the war under Lincoln's generous terms. "Let 'em up easy," he told his assembled military leaders Gen. Ulysses S. Grant (a future president), Gen. William T. Sherman and Adm. David Dixon Porter in an 1865 meeting on the steamer River Queen. When Richmond, the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at Jefferson Davis's own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, "I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him." On April 9, 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House in Virginia. This left only Joseph Johnston's forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was assassinated.

Assassination

The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth. Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on April 14, 1865 (Good Friday), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, Julia Dent Grant, is said to have strongly disliked Mary Todd Lincoln). The President's eldest son, Robert Todd Lincoln, also turned down the invitation. Without his bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon, to whom he related his famous dream of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend a play at Ford's Theater. The play was Our American Cousin, a musical comedy by the British writer Tom Taylor. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, John Wilkes Booth, a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from Maryland, crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last line Lincoln would ever hear "Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...". When the laughter came John Wilkes Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 caliber Deringer at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his eyeball. Booth then shouted "Sic semper tyrannis!" (Latin: "Thus always to tyrants," and Virginia's state motto; some accounts say he added "The South is avenged!") and jumped from the balcony to the stage below. But as he dropped, the spur of his boot became caught in the American flag draping the box, and he fell awkwardly onto the stage, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and escape, and the mortally wounded & paralyzed President was taken to a house across the street, now called the Petersen House, where he lay in a coma for some time before he quietly expired. Abraham Lincoln was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 AM the next morning, April 15, 1865 (Easter Saturday). Upon seeing him die, Secretary of War Edwin Stanton lamented "Now he belongs to the ages." After Lincoln's body was returned to the White House officials prepared him for his "lying in state," and now a newly discovered photograph from the estate of photographer, artist and engraver John B. Bachelder has surfaced showing Abraham Lincoln but a few hours post mortem. It was published for the first time ever in Lloyd Ostendorf's last book ("Lincoln's Photographs: A Complete Album" by Lloyd Ostendorf, Rockywood Press, Dayton, Ohio, 2004). As an archivist of Lincoln photographs published before his untimely death in September of 2004, Mr. Ostendorf labeled the photo in question here "O-130", and since there are currently 130 known photos of Lincoln, it is considered the most recent photographic discovery of Lincoln. Mr. Ostendorf did not include the details in his book of how he came upon the picture, however it is surmised that John B. Bachelder's descendants found it and let Mr. Ostendorf know about it and use it. The photograph of the 16th President is not linked here out of lurid interest, nor morbid curiosity, but as a new historical find, if authentic it is in fact the only immediately post mortem photograph of the late beloved president to be taken by Mr. Meserve, on the morning of April 15th 1865. Link:(WARNING; possibly disturbing image) Booth and several other conspirators had planned to kill a number of other government officials at the same time, but for various reasons Lincoln's was the only assassination actually carried out (although Secretary of State Seward was badly injured by an assailant). Several of the conspirators were eventually captured. Four people were tried by military tribunal and hanged for the assassination plot (David Herold, George Atzerodt, Lewis Powell (aka Lewis Payne) and Mary Surratt, the first woman ever executed by the United States government.) Three people were sentenced to life imprisonment (Michael O'Laughlin, Samuel Arnold and Dr. Samuel Mudd). Edman Spangler was sentenced to six years imprisonment. John Surratt, tried later by a civilian court, was acquitted. The fairness of the convictions, particularly of Mary Surratt, have been called into question, and there are doubts as to the exact degree of her involvement, if any. Booth himself was shot when discovered holed up in a barn (the barn itself collapsed in the 1930s and the site is now the median of a state highway in Virginia). Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois. Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent continued attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on September 26, 1901. See Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation. Many medical experts now suspect that Lincoln may have suffered from congestive heart failure and Marfan syndrome, both of which can be fatal.

Timeline

*1809 Birth of Abraham Lincoln on February 12th *1818 Death of Nancy Hanks, his mother, from snakeroot poisoning, on October 5th *1842 Marriage to Mary Todd on November 4th *1843 Birth of Robert Todd Lincoln, his son, on August 1st *1846 Birth of Edward Baker Lincoln, his son, on March 10th *1850 Death of Edward Baker Lincoln, his son, on February 1st *1850 US Census in Springfield, Illinois *1850 Birth of William Wallace Lincoln, his son, on December 21st *1851 Death of Thomas Lincoln, his father, on January 17th *1853 Birth of Thomas (Tad) Lincoln, his son, on April 4th *1860 US Census in Springfield, Illinois *1861 Begins term as 16th President of the United States *1862 Death of William Wallace Lincoln, his son, in Washington on February 20th *1865 Ends term as 16th President of the United States *1865 Death of Abraham Lincoln on April 15th

Legacy and memorials

Lincoln's death made the President a martyr to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after George Washington. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the greatest presidents in U.S. history. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the gay rights group Log Cabin Republicans to the insurance corporation Lincoln Financial. Daniel Chester French's seated Lincoln faces the National Mall to the east. Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the capital of Nebraska; with the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. (pictured, right); on the U.S. $5 bill and the 1 cent coin (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Lincoln's Tomb, Lincoln's Home in Springfield, New Salem, Illinois (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), Ford's Theater and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The state nickname for Illinois is Land of Lincoln. Counties in 17 U.S. states (Arkansas, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, West Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming) are named after Lincoln. On February 12, 1892, Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal holiday in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of President's Day. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site in Hodgenville, Kentucky and Lincoln Home National Historic Site in Springfield, Illinois. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is also in Springfield. The Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery is located in Elwood, Illinois. Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico, is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The U.S. received a statue of Benito Juárez in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the Mexican-American War. There is also a statue in Tijuana, Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in United Kingdom one in London, one in Manchester and another in Edinburgh. The ballistic missile submarine Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602) and the aircraft carrier Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72) were named in his honor. Director Steven Spielberg is currently planning a movie on Lincoln with Liam Neeson in the leading role. The American Disney theme parks feature an Audio-Animatronics Abraham Lincoln in the show Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln and the Hall of Presidents. In a recent public vote entitled "The Greatest American," Lincoln placed second.

Trivia

* Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4" (192 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out Lyndon Johnson at 6'3 1/2" (192 cm). * Lincoln and Charles Darwin were born on the same day of the same year, February 12, 1809. * The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was Samuel J. Seymour (~1860 April 14, 1956), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the CBS-TV quiz show I've Got a Secret. As a five-year-old, he said that he thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge. * According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as "two-faced" by his opponent in the 1858 Senate election, Stephen Douglas. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, "If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?" * According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: "It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!" It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy.

Quotes

* "If I were to try to read, much less answer, all the attacks made on me, this shop might as well be closed for any other business. I do the very best I know how the very best I can; and I mean to keep doing so until the end. If the end brings me out all right, what's said against me won't amount to anything. If the end brings me out wrong, ten angels swearing I was right would make no difference." The Inner Life of Abraham Lincoln: Six Months at the White House by Francis B. Carpenter (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1995), pp. 258-259. *"Those who deny freedom to others, deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, can not long retain it." The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln edited by Roy P. Basler, Volume III, "Letter To Henry L. Pierce and Others" (April 6, 1859), p. 376.

Presidential appointments

Cabinet

Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country.

Supreme Court

Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: *Noah Haynes Swayne - 1862 *Samuel Freeman Miller - 1862 *David Davis - 1862 *Stephen Johnson Field - 1863 *Salmon P. Chase - Chief Justice - 1864

Major presidential acts

;Involvement as President-elect *Morrill Tariff of 1861 *Corwin Amendment ;Enacted as President *Signed Revenue Act of 1861 *Signed Homestead Act *Signed Morill Land-Grant College Act *Signed Internal Revenue Act of 1862 *Established Bureau of Agriculture (1862) *Signed National Banking Act of 1863 *Signed Internal Revenue Act of 1864

States admitted to the Union

*West Virginia June 20, 1863 *Nevada October 31, 1864

See also

*Origins of the American Civil War *Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences *List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations *World Almanac's Ten Most Influential People of the Second Millennium * Movies: D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln', The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln *Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum *1850 US Census with Abraham Lincoln in Springfield, Illinois *1860 US Census with Abraham Lincoln in Springfield, Illinois

Further reading

*Abraham Lincoln by Lord Charnwood ISBN 0486299597 *Lincoln by David Herbert Donald ISBN 068482535X *Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era by David Herbert Donald ISBN 0375725326 *Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln by Doris Kearns Goodwin ISBN 0684824906 *Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President by Allen C. Guelzo ISBN 0802842933 *Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President by Harold Holzer ISBN 0743224663 *Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution by James M. McPherson ISBN 0195076060 *Lincoln's War: The Untold Story of America's Greatest President as Commander-in-Chief by Geoffrey Perret ISBN 0375507388 *Abraham Lincoln's DNA and other adventures in genetics by Philip Reilly ISBN 0879695803 *Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness by Joshua Wolf Shenk ISBN 0618551166 *The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln by C. A. Tripp ISBN 0743266390 *Lincoln by Gore Vidal ISBN 0375708766 *Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423 *The Real Lincoln by Thomas DiLorenzo ISBN 0761526463

External links

Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Wikisource Wikisource has original works written by or about: Wikiquote-logo-en.png Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: * The Lincoln Institute * Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life * Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library * Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress (1850-1865) * Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln * Abraham Lincoln's Program of Black Resettlement * Abraham Lincoln Research Site * Abraham Lincoln - Encarta * Abraham Lincoln Online * The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln * Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College * Discussion of John Drinkwater's play Abraham Lincoln * Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln * The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln * Lincoln Memorial Washington, DC * The Lincoln Museum Fort Wayne, Indiana * The Lincoln Prize A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College * Abraham Lincoln's Assassination * John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's "Substitute" * US6469 Patent -- Manner of Bouying Vessels -- A. Lincoln -- 1849 * King Lincoln (an archive of articles on Lincoln) * White House Biography * National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace (includes good early history) *Hoard Historical Museum in Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin with Lincoln Library

Documents at Project Gutenberg

by Abraham Lincoln

*Speeches and addresses ** Free eBook of Gettysburg Address at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Abraham Lincoln's First Inaugural Address at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Lincoln Letters at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Speeches and Letters of Abraham Lincoln, 1832-1865 at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of State of the Union Addresses at Project Gutenberg *The Writings of Abraham Lincoln ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 1: 1832-1843 at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 2: 1843-1858 at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 3: the Lincoln-Douglas debates at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 4: the Lincoln-Douglas debates at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 5: 1858-1862 at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 6: 1862-1863 at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 7: 1863-1865 at Project Gutenberg *Miscellany ** Free eBook of A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln at Project Gutenberg ** Free eBook of Lincoln's Yarns and Stories at Project Gutenberg

about Lincoln

* Volume 1 and Volume 2 of Abraham Lincoln: a History (1890) by John Hay (1835 to 1905) & John George Nicolay (1832 to 1901) * eText of The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954) * eText of The Life of Abraham Lincoln (1901) by Henry Ketcham * Volume 1 and Volume 2 of Abraham Lincoln (1899) by John T. Morse * eText of The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne * eText of Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D. * eText of Lincoln's Personal Life (1922) by Nathaniel W. Stephenson |} Aristotle 1242468 1242470 2333909 1672509 1711789 702724 1711357 702703 795966 3056693 717000 19054 4169 657094 17546 11887 72468 19596 66613 148363 23276 22954 783 374761 22939 22926 34413 17551 12229 3341 1167 26710 72395 60803 30340 171171 22972 872518 10174 19376 2009453 29920 26833 1545627 1692795 591767 1692804 1692791 397064 170594 243391 16369 9258 18895 42446 43912 28297 52813 30882 26700 15428 472360 674 50650 162717 11960 12207 19904 2130 9223 22986 22921 25447 30503 9252 17512 9253 1389981 37066 879525 540271 182236 42012 461152 1730 18957 387708 35524 1216 149170 171850 23632 39393 16403 13172 5211 852426 35805 2063246 854 65207 181549 54136 54204 24517 4163 203963 2107750 80044 51196 65150 78426 354034 594 529422 529396 659273 44920 52121 164290 947807 593030 1737 171288 79682 14405 30718 34633 179669 480672 161999 60931 191826 23196 72718 1691470 393736 61093 20580 17939 39098 743524 89755 625849 18831 499019 243367 34602 26860 25418 8278 79979 307907 34655 5185 48046 333365 213446 59861 1692666 37196 2129989 2130036 38493 2119952 39438 191444 1067753 49901 141001 1874153 211922 3017505 619578 9247 30746 636959 321843 4805 14631 169409 12500 1462635 44525 2972 19048 11878 11945 18836 34644 34567 44941 1647048 26810 18902 39872 22261 2900846 76939 342713 32818 1483482 1666053 98409 1518659 1958440 2122 48489 1692652 910746 491442 1692809 1692819 1692779 1692748 1692739 1692685 1696574 1692784 1692756 1692785 1692702 1692773 1692761 1692768 1692711 1692706 2007431 2590334 1718709 1692660 1692816 1692648 489002 223339 98394 34742 660135 23922 2145896 31797 13736 890352 19331 715160 296995 7264 219814 979197 651269 420342 264631 1191303 23301 185832 161623 3143 24983 23032 24694 23039 23483 177438 23003 37010 23040 586276 3073531 151419 748760 3072809 18247 1007026 217177 491696 3409 102883 5664 42882 1864889 8886 9897 9302 47921 339686 317465 14608 20347 43254 21830 7322 25140 43854 28387 23474 261873 30716 11319 25879 46038 5823 8211 25525 16187 26202 10073 12598 37304 29823 7925 90682 65119 16143 19445 16743 15626 1216778 10671 33617 6117 49944 339 15941 16340 207322 700 3408 225873 17741 http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Aristotle http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&from=objects&id=5840 http://www.galilean-library.org/philosophy.html http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/ http://plato.stanford.edu/ http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/gpi/index.htm Aristotle, marble copy of bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum. Aristotle (Greek: Aristotel s; 384 BC March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. Student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle and Plato are often considered as the two most influential philosophers in Western thought. He wrote many books about physics, poetry, zoology, logic, government, and biology. The three most influential ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato (a teacher of Aristotle) and Socrates (ca. 470 BC-399 BC), whose thinking deeply influenced Plato. Among them they transformed Presocratic Greek philosophy into the foundations of Western philosophy as we know it. Socrates did not leave any writings, possibly as a result of the reasons articulated against writing philosophy attributed to him in Plato's dialogue Phaedrus. His ideas are known to us only indirectly, through Plato and a few other writers. The writings of Plato and Aristotle form the core of Ancient philosophy. Aristotle, by contrast, placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses and would correspondingly be better classed among modern empiricists (see materialism and empiricism). He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (Endoxa); his goal being non-contradiction rather than Truth. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in treatise form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Plato mainly wrote philosophical dialogues, that is, arguments in the form of conversations, usually with Socrates as a participant. Though the early dialogues are concerned mainly with methods of acquiring knowledge and most of the last ones with justice and practical ethics, his most famous works expressed a synoptic view of ethics, metaphysics, reason, knowledge and human life. The fundamental idea of Plato is that knowledge gained through the senses is always confused and impure; true knowledge being acquired by the contemplative soul that turns away from the world. To attain such true knowledge, the philosopher must make use of the "royal science" of dialectic. One of the necessary obstacles of dialectic is dialogue itself which guides the interlocutors away from the paths to truth. The soul alone can have knowledge of the Forms, the real essences of things, of which the world we see is but an imperfect copy. Such knowledge has ethical as well as scientific importance. Plato can be called, with qualification, an idealist and a rationalist. Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, physics,and zoology. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on aesthetics, economics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also dealt with education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works practically comprise an encyclopedia of Greek knowledge.

Biography

Early life and studies at the Academy

A bust of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the West. Aristotle was born at Stageira, a colony of Andros on the Macedonian peninsula of Chalcidice in 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King Amyntas III of Macedon. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of Macedonia. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in medicine and biology from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an orphan and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, Proxenus of Atarneus. He taught Aristotle Greek, rhetoric, and poetry (O'Connor et al., 2004). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to Athens at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena. From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of Plato and distinguished himself at the Academy. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with Xenocrates and other Platonists, and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the Epicureans, who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by patristic writers such as Justin Martyr and Gregory Nazianzen, the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early Christian heretics, not in any well-grounded historical tradition.

Aristotle as philosopher and tutor

After the death of Plato (347 BC), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a post that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of Hermias, ruler of Atarneus in Asia Minor, and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle went with his family to Mytilene. It is also reported that he stopped on Lesbos and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of Alexander the Great, who was then 13. Plutarch wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although Bertrand Russell disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example Hephaestion and Harpalus. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. According to sources such as Plutarch and Diogenes, Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the 340s BC, and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead.

Founder and master of the Lyceum

In about 335 BC, Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as Aulus Gellius says, have conducted a school of rhetoric during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceios, from which his school has come to be known as the Lyceum. (It was also called the Peripatetic School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- peripateo -- the shaded walks -- peripatoi -- around the gymnasium). During the thirteen years (335 BC 322 BC) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote Dialogues in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more didactic and the language more technical than in the Dialogues. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. Pliny claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and Strabo asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year, 322 BC. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to hemlock poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the tides," is without historical foundation. Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When Platonism ceased to dominate the world of Christian speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the 13th century, as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, "the master of those who know".

Methodology

:For more details on this topic, see Aristotle's theory of universals. Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of essence, saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the universal; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in particular things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive. In Aristotle's terminology, the term natural philosophy corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: motion, light, and the laws of physics. Many centuries later these subjects would later become the basis of modern science, as studied through the scientific method. The term philosophy is distinct from metaphysics, which is what moderns term philosophy. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. "All science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of immaterial being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, Analytic, be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

Aristotle's epistemology

Logic

:Main article: Aristotelian logic :For more details on this topic, see Non-Aristotelian logic.

History

Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'" (Boche ski, 1951). However, Plato reports that syntax was thought of before him, by Prodikos of Keos, who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics, the earlier philosophers used concepts like reductio ad absurdum as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for deduction, he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his dialectic, which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Boche ski, 1951). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from premises, so he focused on having good premises so that the conclusion would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method (Rose, 1968).

Analytics and the Organon

What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not authentic, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of Christ: #Categories #On Interpretation #Prior Analytics #Posterior Analytics #Topics #On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics. (Boche ski, 1951).

Modal logic

Aristotle is also the creator of syllogisms with modalities (modal logic). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of truth. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968).

Science

Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this worldview did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through experiment. For example, in his book The history of animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than female. Had he only made some observations, he would have found out that this claim is false. Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through reason alone. One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them. In contrast, today's "science" assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as empiricism or the scientific method.

Aristotle's metaphysics

Aristotle's four causes

Aristotle names four "causes" of things, but the word cause (Greek: , aitia) is not used in the modern sense of "cause and effect", under which causes are events or states of affairs. Rather, the four causes are like different ways of explaining something: ; The Material Cause (That from which it comes): This is the material that makes up an object, for example, "the bronze and silver ... are causes of the statue and the bowl." ; The Formal Cause (That which it is): This is the blueprint or the idea commonly held of what an object should be. Aristotle says, "The form is the account (and the genera of the account) of the essence (for instance, the cause of an octave is the ratio two to one, and in general number), and the parts that are in the account." ; The Efficient Cause (That which moves it): This is the person who makes an object, or "unmoved movers" (gods) who move nature. For example, "a father is a cause of his child; and in general the producer is a cause of the product and the initiator of the change is a cause." This is closest to the modern definition of "cause". ; The Final Cause (That of which its purpose is): The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve. This includes "all the intermediate steps that are for the end ... for example, slimming, purging, drugs, or instruments are for health; all of these are for the end, though they differ in that some are activities while others are instruments." An example of an artifact that has all four causes would be a table, which has material causes (wood and nails), a formal cause (the blueprint, or a generally agreed idea of what tables are), an efficient cause (the carpenter), and a final cause (using it to dine on). Aristotle argues that natural objects such as an "individual man" have all four causes. The material cause of an individual man would be the flesh and bone that make up an individual man. The formal cause would be the blueprint of man, that which is used as a guide to create an individual man and to keep him in a certain state called man. The efficient cause of an individual man would be the father of that man, or in the case of all men an “unmoved mover” who breathed (anima: breath) into the soul (anima: soul) of man. The final cause of man would be as Aristotle stated, “Now we take the human’s function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be the soul’s activity and actions that express reason. Hence the excellent man’s function is to do this finely and well. Each function is completed well when its completion expresses the proper virtue. Therefore the human good turns out to be the souls’ activity that expresses virtue.”

The difference between natural objects and artifacts

The difference between natural objects and an artifact is that natural objects have self movement. Aristotle defined the difference between a natural object and an artifact when he stated, “In contrast to these, a bed, a cloak, or any other artifact-insofar as it is described as such i.e., as a bed, a cloak, or whatever, and to the extent that it is a product of a craft-has no innate impulse to change; but insofar as it is coincidentally made of stone or earth or a mixture of these, it has an innate impulse to change and just to that extent. This is because a nature is a type of principle and cause of motion and stability within those things to which it primarily belongs in their own right and not coincidentally.” The natural objects are changed to artifacts through crafts but they have an innate impulse of self movement to convert through time to their natural state, and they will all turn into that state when all animals with reason are extinct from the earth.

Modes of causation

Aristotle states two modes of causation: *Proper Causation: Things take place for the sake of something, and the result is that which is intended. *Accidental Causation: Things that take place not out of necessity. E.g. things that take place by chance/coincidence. This cause is indeterminable.

Chance

Chance lies in the realm of accidental causes. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. However, chance can only apply to human beings. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance" (Physics, 2.6).

The Four Elements

*Fire which is hot and dry. *Earth which is cold and dry. *Air which is hot and wet. *Water which is cold and wet. These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire Air Water Earth Fire, etc.). The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal).

Aristotle's ethics

:Main article: Aristotelian ethics Although Aristotle wrote several works on ethics, the major one was the Nicomachean Ethics, which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses virtues. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, Nicomachus. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Also, as it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become "good." Thus, if a person was to become virtuous, they could not simply study what virtue is, they had to actually do virtuous activity. In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the Highest Good. Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man. But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or Nous. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfulling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as being always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances.

Nicomachean ethics

:Main article: Nichomachean Ethics In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually behaving virtuously and developing virtue rather than committing specific good actions. This can be opposed to Kantian ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. Nicomachean Ethics emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that happiness is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for goodness, good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy.

Aristotle's critics

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds. *At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, Plato, appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments. *Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful empirical investigation, but often drifted into abstract logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence; for example, his assertion that objects of different mass fall at different speeds under gravity, which was later refuted by Galileo. *In the Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established dogma. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and systematic so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the sceptical methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato. *Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time, and that he was a far lesser mathematician than many of his learned contemporaries. Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The Western mind is "Aristotelian". By this we mean that it formats the external world into factual and "scien"-tific categories. (By "Scien"-tific we mean that something is knowable or known. Latin scientia = knowledge). Under the premise of external categorization, the Aristotelian mind has come to equate "experience" with the unified chronical and spatial ontological structure that is the "external" universe -- visible, audible and sensible by the handful of our common, well-identified senses. By so equating the two, the Aristotelian mind is fully confident, or fully "positive" of the meanings of its utterances and the purposes of all actions. That is to say, it dismisses the possibility of dubious meanings as interpreted by subjects that are at variance in perspectives or phenomenology, and it dismisses the importance of anything other than an objectively defined "purpose" to an action. Therefore, the Aristotelian mind assumes that when subject A utters "I am X," he or she is referring to the same experience and is expressing the same purpose as subject B who also utters "I am X."

Bibliography

Note: Bekker numbers are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.

Major works

The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the Corpus Aristotelicum. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the Athenaion Politeia or the fragments of other politeia are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such On Colours may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., Theophrastus and Straton. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the De Plantis, possibly by Nicolaus of Damascus. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval palmistries, astrological and magical texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk.

Logical writings

* Organon (collected works on logic): ** (1a) Categories (or Categoriae) ** (16a) On Interpretation (or De Interpretatione) ** (24a) Prior Analytics (or Analytica Priora) ** (71a) Posterior Analytics (or Analytica Posteriora) ** (100b) Topics (or Topica) ** (164a) On Sophistical Refutations (or De Sophisticis Elenchis)

Physical and scientific writings

* (184a) Physics (or Physica) * (268a) On the Heavens (or De Caelo) * (314a) On Generation and Corruption (or De Generatione et Corruptione) * (338a) Meteorology (or Meteorologica) * (391a) On the Cosmos (or De Mundo, or On the Universe) * * (402a) On the Soul (or De Anima) * (436a) Little Physical Treatises (or Parva Naturalia): ** On Sense and the Sensible (or De Sensu et Sensibilibus) ** On Memory and Reminiscence (or De Memoria et Reminiscentia) ** On Sleep and Sleeplessness (or De Somno et Vigilia) ** On Dreams (or De Insomniis) * ** On Prophesying by Dreams (or De Divinatione per Somnum) ** On Longevity and Shortness of Life (or De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae) ** On Youth and Old Age (On Life and Death) (or De Juventute et Senectute, De Vita et Morte) ** On Breathing (or De Respiratione) * (481a) On Breath (or De Spiritu) * * (486a) History of Animals (or Historia Animalium, or On the History of Animals, or Description of Animals) * (639a) On the Parts of Animals (or De Partibus Animalium) * (698a) On the Gait of Animals (or De Motu Animalium, or On the Movement of Animals) * (704a) On the Progression of Animals (or De Incessu Animalium) * (715a) On the Generation of Animals (or De Generatione Animalium) * (791a) On Colours (or De Coloribus) * * (800a) De audibilibus * (805a) Physiognomics (or Physiognomonica) * * On Plants (or De Plantis) * * (830a) On Marvellous Things Heard (or Mirabilibus Auscultationibus, or On Things Heard) * * (847a) Mechanical Problems (or Mechanica) * * (859a) Problems (or Problemata) * * (968a) On Indivisible Lines (or De Lineis Insecabilibus) * * (973a) Situations and Names of Winds (or Ventorum Situs) *

Metaphysical writings

* (980a) Metaphysics (or Metaphysica)

Ethical writings

* (1094a) Nicomachean Ethics (or Ethica Nicomachea, or The Ethics) * (1181a) Great Ethics (or Magna Moralia) * * (1214a) Eudemian Ethics (or Ethica Eudemia) * (1249a) Virtues and Vices (or De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus, Libellus de virtutibus) * * (1252a) Politics (or Politica) * (1343a) Economics (or Oeconomica)

Aesthetic writings

* (1354a) Rhetoric (or Ars Rhetorica, or The Art of Rhetoric or Treatise on Rhetoric) * Rhetoric to Alexander (or Rhetorica ad Alexandrum) * * (1447a) Poetics (or Ars Poetica)

Writings absent from Corpus Aristotelicum

* The Constitution of the Athenians (or Athenaion Politeia, or The Athenian Consitution) * * On Melissus, On Xenophanes, and On Gorgias. These are sometimes grouped together and called the "MXG" writings. They clearly are not written by Aristotle, and are believed to date from the fifth century AD. However, because they have frequently been attributed to him in the past, they are often included in compilations of his writings (for example, in the Loeb Classical Library).

Specific editions

* Princeton University Press: The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by Jonathan Barnes ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works) * Oxford University Press: Clarendon Aristotle Series. Scholarly edition * Harvard University Press: Loeb Classical Library (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages)

Named after Aristotle

*Aristoteles crater on the Moon. *The Aristotle University of Thessaloniki *Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of J. Arthur Rank, became a common expression in Cockney rhyming slang.

See also

*Aristotelian view of God *Aristotelian theory of gravity *Philosophy *Plato *Logic

References

* }} (1951) . '' Ancient Formal Logic|1|2=]= '' } }, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam } * }} (1968) . '' Aristotle's Syllogistic|1|2=]= '' } }, Charles C Thomas Publisher, Springfield } * }} (2002) . '' The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy|1|2=]= '' } }, McGraw Hill . ISBN 0195175107

External links

Wikisource Wikisource has original works written by or about: Wikiquote-logo-en.png Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: * Works by Aristotle at Project Gutenberg * A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time * The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle., 2004. * Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle. * Aristotle and Indian logic *O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., Aristotle, 2004. *Taylor, Henry Osborn. Greek Biology and Medicine (1922) — Chapter 3 is devoted to "Aristotle's Biology". * Works by Aristotle at PP *This article incorporates material from Aristotle on PlanetMath, which is licensed under the GFDL. The template below has been proposed for deletion. See templates for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. Philosophy An American in Paris 1901286 1587300 6104 31882 13066 34674 22989 148820 10581 34615 22706 152506 52875 26795 : An American In Paris is also a 1951 film musical starring Gene Kelly. An American in Paris is a symphonic composition by American composer George Gershwin which debuted in 1928. Inspired by Gershwin's time in Paris, it is in the form of an extended tone poem evoking the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s. In addition to the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra, the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition. * "An American In Paris" is second only to Rhapsody In Blue as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions. * The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: celesta and saxophones. Academy Award 773951 3050819 161292 10571 31882 39842 36163 1430732 58819 382576 34939 1823238 19659 34656 15945 34981 34775 34864 18110 5142 583273 34575 34671 1955564 883879 11657 2284555 74996 52124 8275 33536 5224 304831 35502 34551 14539 34548 211405 34647 88075 34556 149832 26678 29798 1343342 52371 174251 61702 34674 54163 61818 61825 34673 61827 61830 61832 45949 34684 61834 62067 62008 34612 45919 34980 62009 62390 182127 62395 76841 61760 34584 61823 34776 83065 61828 61831 34608 61833 45970 45910 34672 45723 99028 182065 34648 48468 45726 62391 61843 34614 61845 61848 34708 1540099 144134 34664 181774 314083 45182 34979 45184 489033 404858 361388 http://www.calendarlive.com/custom/envelope/oscars/cl-eap_speeches%2C0%2C4482173.htmlstory?coll=cl-oscars-left http://www.oscars.com/ http://www.oscars.org/ http://www.digitalhit.com/academy/ http://www.thegate.ca/oscars/ http://www.cinemovie.info/Febbraio05_Notiziario.html Oscar Award Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian Bob Hope received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work. The Academy Awards, commonly known as The Oscars, are the most prominent film awards in the United States. The Awards are granted by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, a professional honorary organization which as of 2003 had a voting membership of 5,816. Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc. The most recent awards were the 77th Academy Awards.

History

The Academy Awards were the brainchild of MGM executive Louis B. Mayer in 1927. The industry was in need of a touch of a class and a public-relations coup. The awards served this purpose. The awards were first given at a banquet in the Blossom Room of the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel on May 16, 1929. The evening included a banquet, dancing and the presentation of awards. The winners had been announced three months prior, eliminating all suspense. The whole presentation took five minutes, as there were no speeches. To qualify, a film had to open in Los Angeles during the twelve months ending on July 31 of the preceding year. The 1934 and later awards have all been based on openings in the previous calendar year. The 1932 33 awards were based on a 17-month qualifying period. The "opened in Los Angeles" clause allowed Charlie Chaplin to win his only voted Oscar for Limelight which was made in 1952, but did not open until 1972. The rules have changed since then so films more than two years old are not eligible.

Name

The official name of the Oscar statuette is the "Academy Award of Merit." Made of gold-plated britannium, it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall and depicts a knight holding a crusader's sword standing on a reel of film. The Academy Award statuette was allegedly nicknamed Oscar when Academy librarian Margaret Herrick saw it on a table and said, "it looks just like my uncle Oscar!" The nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as Academy Award, even by the Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is oscars.org and the official website for the Academy Awards is at oscars.com.

Awards night

The awards night itself is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world.

Nominations

The members of each branch determine the nominees in their respective category, after which the entire membership votes for the winner in all categories. The ballot itself contains just the title of a work not the persons involved for all categories except acting. Less subjectively, it is clear that movie studios spend large amounts of money on campaigning for their films. Around nomination and voting time, film trade publications are filled with ads headed "For Your Consideration". Miramax has been the most widely discussed (and arguably successful) studio to use this technique. An award can give a film a huge boost at the box office and make an artist an industry "power player" overnight. In the past few decades, the advent of VHS and DVD have given Academy Awards a new level of importance, as the attachment of a win or even nomination in a prominent category can dramatically increase sales and rentals. The Academy has made a public effort to crack down on these campaigns, but the results have been mixed. Such influence is nothing new: for example, it is widely believed William Randolph Hearst ran a campaign to ensure that Citizen Kane a film regarded by many as the greatest of all time did not receive any Academy Award nominations. The film ended up receiving only one trophy despite nominations in nine categories.

Rules

Academy Award rules are reviewed annually. Recent rule changes include the following: *For 2003, the category names for the writing awards were simplified. The "Screenplay Based on Material Previously Produced or Published" category was renamed the "Adapted Screenplay" category. The category of "Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen" was renamed "Original Screenplay." *For 2002, a new category, Best Animated Feature, was established. *As of 2001, a film cannot appear on the Internet before its theatrical release and be eligible for an Oscar. *In 2000 (and again in 2003), rules were tightened to restrict Best Picture nominations and awards to producers who actually functioned as producers. Up to three producers are allowed per film. The 1998 Best Picture Oscar went to five producers for Shakespeare in Love. *The "Best Original Score" category has been continually tweaked. In the mid 1990s, it was split into two ("Best Dramatic Score" and "Best Comedy or Musical Score"), then merged back into one. The rules as to how much of the score has to be "original" (as opposed to derived from other scores in the series, as with leitmotifs, for example in the Star Wars or Lord of the Rings films) has also been changed many times. The greatest number of Academy Awards won by a film is 11, a distinction shared by 3 films: Ben-Hur, Titanic, and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King.

Awards

The "Academy Award of Merit" is given in many categories, including the following: *Best Picture 1928 to present *Best Actor 1928 to present *Best Actress 1928 to present *Best Supporting Actor 1936 to present *Best Supporting Actress 1936 to present *Best Animated Feature 2001 to present *Best Art Direction 1928 to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration) *Best Assistant Director 1933 to 1937 *Best Cinematography 1928 to present *Comedy Direction 1928 only *Costume Design 1948 to present *Best Dance Direction 1935 to 1937 *Directing 1928 to present *Documentary Feature *Documentary Short Subject *Engineering Effects 1928 only *Film Editing 1935 to present *Best Foreign Language Film 1947 to present *Makeup 1981 to present *Original Music Score *Best Song *Animated Short Film 1931 to present *Live Action Short Film *Best Short Film - Color 1936 and 1937 *Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels 1936 to 1956 *Short Film - Novelty 1932 to 1935 *Sound *Sound Effects Editing 1963 to present *Best Story 1928 to 1956 *Best Title Writing 1928 only *Unique and Artistic Production 1928 only *Visual Effects 1939 to present *Writing Adapted Screenplay 1928 to present *Writing Original Screenplay 1940 to present * Academy Award, Scientific or Technical 1931 to present at three levels Special Awards, which are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole, include: *Academy Juvenile Award 1934 to 1960 *Academy Honorary Award 1928 to present *Academy Special Achievement Award *The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award 1938 to present *The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award *Gordon E. Sawyer Award

See also

* List of Academy Awards ceremonies & hosts * List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards * List of people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar and a Tony Award * Films that have been considered the greatest ever

External links

* LA Times.com article * Official site of the Academy Awards * Official site of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences * Annual backstage coverage of the Academy Awards * Oscar Coverage @ TheGATE.ca * Cinemovie.Info: Winners of the 77th Academy Awards Ceremony (2005)

References

Gail, K. & Piazza, J. (2002) The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. International Atomic Time 1677225 1715906 2243 5879 34851 143276 15787 34671 7339 4739 11866 35984 18472 41835 86583 34953 31016 48837 144485 1182359 159886 http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html http://hpiers.obspm.fr http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm Temps Atomique International (TAI) or International Atomic Time is a very accurate and stable time scale. It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 atomic clocks (including a large number of caesium atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. It has been available since 1955, and became the international standard on which UTC is based on January 1, 1972, as decided by the 14th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures is in charge of the realization of TAI. The highest precision realization of TAI times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy. Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale. GPS is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the basis for legal time worldwide, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. In mid 2005, UTC was behind TAI by 32 seconds. The difference is due to leap seconds, which are periodically inserted into UTC due to slight irregularities in the Earth's rate of rotation. While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 seconds from UT1, a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation. Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections. UT1 is computed by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). TAI was defined such that TAI = UT1 on January 1 1958. Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval. Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds.

See also

* Terrestrial Time * Coordinated Universal Time * Universal Time * Sidereal Time * Time and frequency transfer * Clock synchronization * Network Time Protocol

External links

* Bureau International des Poids et Mesures * website * NIST Time and Frequency FAQs Altruism 691802 714501 879812 771308 722373 699593 49901 9258 9630 72660 743524 72132 254243 9236 9425 132471 25017 2731583 25414 3394 5211 21433 3390 9235 10671 339 580039 187849 21147 11924 66996 44192 44190 44189 37660 233009 70400 14205 26789 590528 1076205 26725 233247 584 22951 11283 43582 245992 37235 61032 43717 186123 8756 30802 52568 26524 151529 54086 151604 212600 12229 79355 9567 18499 27053 26847 5277 30297 564810 49765 325717 471603 5708 1118248 14936 49944 2021591 22572 36163 3143 2130 9247 17551 18895 24983 23032 24694 23039 23483 177438 23003 37010 23040 586276 3073531 151419 748760 3072809 18247 1007026 217177 22972 491696 3409 102883 37196 5664 42882 1864889 8886 61093 52813 9897 9302 47921 339686 15428 393736 317465 14608 243391 19376 20347 43254 21830 22261 7322 25140 43854 28387 23474 261873 30716 308 11319 25879 46038 5823 8211 25525 16187 26202 10073 11945 12598 37304 29823 7925 90682 14631 65119 16143 19445 16743 15626 1216778 33617 6117 22954 15941 4163 16340 207322 700 26710 3408 225873 17741 2900869 405816 2784 751 178650 83484 75696 4950 173939 175567 337346 6035 454961 1609486 1454375 261899 1018093 9832 11627 187886 246042 12327 13756 1924900 916665 1386213 16862 197367 20062 48588 739238 52041 19626 2554104 36970 178755 23763 25042 517367 42371 178311 149840 157909 2057374 102920 27789 80329 626834 28436 666588 26861 206509 561681 195127 595872 30690 253372 147619 32591 185441 224108 170634 354296 70364 34258 164632 327443 127859 777042 1439959 http://rous.redbarn.org/objectivism/Writing/RaymieStata/ReasonEgoismFreedom.html http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html http://www.galilean-library.org/philosophy.html http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/ http://plato.stanford.edu/ http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/gpi/index.htm Altruism is either a practice or habit (in the view of many, a virtue) as well as an ethical doctrine. In Buddhism it can also be seen as a fundamental property of (human) nature. Altruism can refer to: * being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the colloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others. * actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in ecology as Commensalism. * an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an "altruist." The concepts have a long history in philosophical and ethical thought, and have more recently become a topic for psychologists, sociologists, evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism.

Altruism in philosophy and ethics

The word "altruism" (French, altruisme, from autrui: "other people", derived from Latin alter: "other") was coined by Auguste Comte, the French founder of positivism, in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the "greater good" of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that "[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This ["to live for others"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely." As the name of the ethical doctrine is "altruism," doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term "altruism" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own. Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny. Adolf Hitler is sometimes presented as an example of this, and has been described as advocating altruism . He says in Mein Kampf : :"The self-sacrificing will to give one's personal labor, and if necessary one's own life, for others is most strongly developed in the Aryan. The Aryan is not greatest in his mental qualities as such, but in the extent of his willingness to put all his abilities into the service of the community. In him the instinct of self-preservation has reached the noblest form, since he willingly subordinates his own ego to the life of the community and, if the hour demands, even sacrifices it." However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread religions (particularly Buddhism and Christianity) advocate it. In the New Testament of the Christian Bible, it is explained as follows: :"Jesus made answer and said, A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee. Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, Go, and do thou likewise." (Luke 10: 30-37) Philosophers who support egoism have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. Nietzsche asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. However, this does not mean that Nietzsche did not believe in helping people. He simply believed that a person shouldn't be prevented from having painful, but necessary, life experiences. Ayn Rand argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life. Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or good is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, for example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone).

Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology

In the science of ethology (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that natural selection acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in game theory have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are: * Kin selection including eusociality (see also "selfish gene") * Reciprocal altruism, mutual aid * Behavioral manipulation (e.g. by parasites) * Indirect reciprocity (e.g. reputation) * Bounded rationality (see e.g. Herbert Simon) * Strong reciprocity * Sexual selection The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind George R. Price's development of the Price equation which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular slime moulds, such as Dictyostelium mucoroides. These protists live as individual amoebae until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors.

Altruism in psychology and sociology

If one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how "benefit" (or "interest") should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits. According to psychological egoism, while people can exhibit altruistic behavior, they cannot have altruistic motivations. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being. Critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is non-falsifiable; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove. It has also been accused of using circular logic: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment". This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment). In contrast to psychological egoism, the empathy-altruism hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarily concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own. In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the "internal" benefit of a "good feeling," sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question. Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, humans donate to international charities and volunteer their time to help society's less fortunate. It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly non-optimal strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat). According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish rationality, be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of kin selection, along the lines of the prisoner's dilemma, are helpful as far as they go; but what a game-theoretic explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the conscience. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher Daniel Dennett, was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the tragedy of the commons, a larger-scale version of the prisoner's dilemma. In game theory terms, a free rider is an agent who draws benefits from a co-operative society without contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off. Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a rogue free rider, an agent who draws a favor ("you scratch my back") and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into reciprocal arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing disguise, fooling co-operators into co-operating after all. This can lead to an evolutionary arms races, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors. In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one really is a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise? One answer is by actually making oneself a genuine co-operator, by erecting psychological barriers to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience. This theory, combined with ideas of kin selection and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience. Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines. Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place.

Altruism in politics

If one is an adherent to the ethical doctrine called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of government to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will necessarily force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically. With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is Lysander Spooner, who, in Natural Law, writes: "Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them." The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that egoism should be actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a left-wing stance, ranging from moderate social democracy to socialism or even communism. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of taxation-funded government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example transfer payments, such as social welfare, or public healthcare and public education). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced collectivism, communalism, or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights. Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. Individualist anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: "That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation" (The Philosophy of Poverty). On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own.

See also

*Altruism in animals

External links

* What is Altruism? (Altruists International) * Biological Altruism * The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University * Reason, Egoism, Freedom by Raymie Stata includes a condemnation of the ethical doctrine of altruism

References

*Batson, C.D. (1991). The altruism question. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. (October 23 2003). The nature of human altruism. In Nature, 425, 785 791. *Comte, August, Catechisme positiviste (1852) or Catechism of Positivism, tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) *Hitler, Adolf, Mein Kampf *Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil *Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, The Philosophy of Poverty (1847) *Spooner, Lysander, Natural Law *Rand, Ayn, The Virtue of Selfishness *Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. The template below has been proposed for deletion. See templates for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. Philosophy Spiritual practices (List) Ang Lee 1005372 857207 767975 2458045 1914234 5751 23588 22572 34982 152827 506181 30107 31882 10571 185130 30067 6735 319333 50477 12254 44706 301257 33284 148541 894486 43363 1156422 34578 2870758 26941 8416 5313 177039 1623960 752 2863865 36165 35984 407591 36163 34548 240173 34553 308435 34601 142426 34658 881249 34663 573304 34598 939750 34669 14622 http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cjkfilmbib.html#Ang http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000487/ Ang Lee (Chinese: ; pinyin: L n ) (born October 23, 1954) is an ethnic Chinese Hollywood director born and raised in Taiwan but educated in the United States. Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comedic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. He created the gay genre in Asian films, and also created the A-list Hollywood wuxia film. He is highly educated, having completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the University of Illinois and received his MFA from New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where in 1984 he made a thesis film called Fine Line. He was also classmates with Spike Lee. He was a Visiting Fellow at Dartmouth College in 2001 where he premiered Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. His most recent films, Hulk and Brokeback Mountain, have been lauded for their artistic originality. Ang Lee's latest film "Brokeback Mountain" (2005) won the best film award in Venice International Film Festival.

Selected films

*Hulk 2 (2007) *Brokeback Mountain (2005) *Hulk (2003) *Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) *Ride with the Devil (1999) *The Ice Storm (1997) *Sense and Sensibility (1995) *Eat Drink Man Woman (1994) *Wedding Banquet (1993) *Pushing Hands (1992)

Bibliography

* Ang Lee Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)

External links

* Ang Lee at the Internet Movie Database The stub template below has been proposed for deletion or renaming. See stub types for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. This article about a film director is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by [ expanding it]. Ayn Rand 2664098 1005323 997276 2113679 1073793 2216441 1518494 2468990 2490607 888952 2532893 21882 23276 743524 22256 11322 34637 19865 34756 14761 180464 568 15181 9567 1688874 5416 12 20168 53917 13706 26964 25391 15913 26308 42146 649879 53506 63742 11625 10671 185614 308 34675 34867 330265 31882 34609 6886 26779 18110 53016 352337 44365 2424749 10792 2576761 6176 1261355 1165329 34656 34608 42314 34775 170326 1165276 34981 356670 34673 234527 34979 34629 25458 14532 3706 34761 34630 1676209 348609 34606 188436 1147923 161947 274095 1375214 1459096 34919 645042 34602 22921 34545 34555 1375332 34655 34553 25126 34754 305445 127594 16143 30758 554034 3408 30716 568258 14631 6677 60095 215751 46789 3179 2029771 113709 36970 25414 245992 34584 174806 262437 221697 23203 32927 34846 1090624 34847 991862 17531 761013 1293773 14533 159211 309641 26275 18895 9247 9258 7925 369040 43582 24116 8169 16215 983 16340 90420 359 35984 34659 34550 34691 699712 34749 34610 34748 1167017 34578 1165285 1165295 34635 34658 34601 34647 34548 34551 21460 636983 34760 34717 35524 34598 264631 420342 232225 3143 2130 17551 24983 23032 24694 23039 23483 177438 23003 37010 23040 586276 3073531 151419 748760 3072809 18247 1007026 217177 22972 491696 3409 102883 37196 5664 42882 1864889 8886 61093 52813 9897 9302 47921 339686 15428 393736 317465 14608 243391 19376 20347 43254 21830 22261 7322 25140 43854 28387 23474 49901 261873 11319 25879 46038 5823 8211 25525 16187 26202 10073 11945 12598 37304 29823 90682 65119 19445 16743 15626 1216778 33617 6117 22954 49944 15941 4163 207322 700 26710 225873 17741 http://www.nathanielbranden.com http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/ http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm http://www.skeptic.com/02.2.shermer-unlikely-cult.html http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq-notes.html http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html#Q0/ http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/ http://www.aynrand.org/ http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ http://www.ariwatch.com/ http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ http://www.barbarabranden.com/ http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ http://www.TIADaily.com/ http://www.theatlasphere.com/ http://www.objectivismonline.net/ http://solohq.com http://forums.4aynrandfans.com http://www.objectivistblogs.com http://www.hblist.com http://randex.org/ http://www.objectivism.net http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/ http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp http://www.galilean-library.org/philosophy.html http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/ http://plato.stanford.edu/ http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/gpi/index.htm Novelist and philosopher, best known for her philosophy of Objectivism Ayn Rand (February 2 1905 March 6 1982; first name pronounced (IPA) /aɪn/ (rhymes with 'mine')), born Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum, was best known for her philosophy of Objectivism and her novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, her concepts of individualism, rational egoism ("rational self-interest"), and capitalism. Believing government has a legitimate but relatively minimal role in a free society, she was not an anarchist, but a minarchist (though she did not use the term "minarchist"). Her novels were based upon the archetype of the Randian hero, a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses, but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal and made it the express goal of her literature to showcase such heroes. She believed: #That man must choose his values and actions by reason; #That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and #That no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force.

Biography

Early life

Rand was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and was the eldest of three daughters of a Jewish family. Her parents were agnostic and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother undertook to teach her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a Rudyard Kipling-style story called "The Mysterious Valley". Throughout her youth, she read the novels of Sir Walter Scott, Alexandre Dumas and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered Victor Hugo at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she would cite him as her favourite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the University of Petrograd. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of Edmond Rostand, Friedrich Schiller and Fyodor Dostoevsky. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of Nietzsche, and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual in Thus Spoke Zarathustra; nevertheless she was strongly critical of his philosophy, going so far as to attack it in the introductions of her novels. Her greatest influence by far is Aristotle, especially his work Organon (Logic). She considered him the greatest philosopher ever. She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a visa to visit American relatives. She arrived in the United States in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in Chicago, she resolved never to return to the Soviet Union, and set out for Los Angeles to become a screenwriter. She then changed her name to "Ayn Rand". There is a story told that she named herself after the Remington Rand typewriter, but recent evidence has proved that this is not the case. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author Aino Kallas.

Major works

Initially, Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an extra on Cecil B. DeMille's King of Kings, she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor, who caught her eye. The two were married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn in 1932 to Universal Studios. Rand then wrote the play The Night of January 16th in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, We the Living (1936), and Anthem (1938). The two novels failed to gain any significant financial/critical success. She was up against the Red Decade in America, and Anthem did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides that, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and the novels cannot be considered to be fully representative. Without Rand's knowledge or permission, We The Living was made into a pair of films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira in 1942 by Scalara Films, Rome. The films were nearly censored by the Italian government under Benito Mussolini, but they were allowed to be featured because the novel they were based upon was ostensibly anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realised that it was as much against Fascism as it was against Communism, and the government banned it quickly thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as We the Living in 1986. Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel The Fountainhead (1943). She took seven years to write it. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought, and that there would be no public for it. It was finally accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed. Despite these initial struggles The Fountainhead was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. The theme of The Fountainhead is "individualism and collectivism in man's soul". It features the life of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul par excellence, an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, and especially in architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand the renunciation of his values with varying degrees of intensity, but Roark maintains his integrity. A most interesting feature of Roark is that he does this unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, by contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptous taciturnity and laconicism. Rand's magnum opus, Atlas Shrugged, was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. Atlas Shrugged is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the Objectivist philosophy in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: :"My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute." The theme of Atlas Shrugged is "The role of man's mind in society". Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel, despite having a political theme at its centre, deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, and human ability. Along with Nathaniel Branden, his wife Barbara, and others including Alan Greenspan and Leonard Peikoff, (jokingly designated "The Collective"), Rand launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy.

The Objectivist movement

Main article: The Objectivist movement In 1950 Rand moved to New York City, where in 1951 she met the young psychology student Nathaniel Branden , who had read her book The Fountainhead at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the Ayn Rand Collective, which included future Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair despite the fact that both were married at the time. This affair was cleared with their spouses but led to the separation and then divorce of Nathaniel Branden from his wife. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction and non-fiction works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the Nathaniel Branden Institute ("the NBI") which Branden had established to promote her philosophy. After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife Barbara Branden in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair). Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. Rand then published a letter in "The Objectivist" announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a persona non grata in the Objectivist movement. 1999 U.S. postage stamp honoring Rand. Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, The Passion of Ayn Rand. She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: "If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!" Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest "Collective" friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged. Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982 in New York City, years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York.

Philosophical influences

Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with Aristotle and John Locke, and more generally with the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment and Age of Reason. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., Baruch Spinoza and Thomas Aquinas. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist Brand Blanshard. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst positively evil. She singled out Immanuel Kant as the most influential of the latter sort. Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche. Though she later repudiated his thought, and reprinted her first novel, We The Living, with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it. Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of classical liberalism. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of Ludwig von Mises and Henry Hazlitt. Later Objectivists, such as Richard Salsman, have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of Jean-Baptiste Say, though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work.

Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony

Rand's political views were radically anti-communist, anti-statist, and pro-capitalist. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic American values of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for mysticism, religion, and compulsory charity (forced extraction), all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success. In 1947, during the infamous Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the House Committee on Un-American Activities. . Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film Song of Russia. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to blacklisting, her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the Soviet Union and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film. Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime propaganda by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in World War II under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as "futile."

Legacy

Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed on her casket. In 1985, Leonard Peikoff, a surviving member of "The Collective" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established "The Ayn Rand Institute: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism". The Institute has since registered the name Ayn Rand as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas. Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist David Kelley wrote an article called "A Question of Sanction," in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist libertarian groups. Kelley wrote that Objectivism was not a "closed system" and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for The Intellectual Activist called "Fact and Value" , argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are intrinsically related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as "The Objectivist Center"). Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside North America, though there are pockets of interest in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, and her novels are reported to be very popular in India (). Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are mostly (with some notable exceptions) drawn from the non-academic world.

Controversy

Rand and her philosophy of Objectivism have been subject to various criticisms. In the realm of analytic philosophy, however, it is more accurate to say that Rand's work has been mostly ignored. University departments considered leaders in the field of analytic philosophy pay scant attention to her work. For example, a study of well-regarded departments in both the analytic and Continental philosophy traditions, produced by Brian Leiter, reveals not one department that considers an acquaintance with Rand's work a prerequisite for the Ph.D. Some academics, however, are bringing her work into the mainstream. One sign of this is the existence of the Ayn Rand Society , founded in 1987, an organization of academic philosophers that is affiliated with the American Philosophical Association. A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand in the analytic philosophy community is the essay "On the Randian Argument" by Harvard University philosopher Robert Nozick, which appears in his collection Socratic Puzzles. Nozick's own libertarian political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay is critical of her argument, and he accuses her of inadequately handling several important issues in metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. For example, he argues that her solution to David Hume's famous is-ought problem is unsatisfactory. Rand holds that preserving one's own life is objectively the highest value because it makes all other values possible. Nozick says that to make this argument sound, she still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or begging the question. Nevertheless, Nozick did respect Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking. Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including Dante, John Milton, Fyodor Dostoevsky, and Albert Camus, and that other philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms. Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her Romantic literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, those critics have claimed that Rand's novels are made up of one-dimensional characters. They dislike that most of the Objectivist heroes are incredibly intelligent and unencumbered by doubt. Some of the heroes are very rich. Others seem to have no shortcomings at all — especially Howard Roark, the hero of The Fountainhead . The antagonists are often weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent. Defenders of Rand respond with counterexamples from her novels to show her range of characterization: Neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she is capable of saving the world alone. Nor are all of her heroes rich: Howard Roark, Hank Rearden, and John Galt started out poor. Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist. Rand herself replied to the criticism (and in advance of much of it) with her essay "The Goal of My Writing" (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be.

Bibliography

Fiction

* Night of January 16th (1934) * We The Living (1936) * Anthem (1938) * The Fountainhead (1943) * Atlas Shrugged (1957)

Posthumous fiction

* Three Plays (2005)

Nonfiction

* For the New Intellectual (1961) * The Virtue of Selfishness (with Nathaniel Branden) (1964) * Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (with Nathaniel Branden, Alan Greenspan, and Robert Hessen) (1966) * Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1967) * The Romantic Manifesto (1969) * The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (1971) * Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982)

Posthumous nonfiction

* The Early Ayn Rand (edited and with commentary by Leonard Peikoff) (1984) * The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought (edited by Leonard Peikoff; additional essays by Leonard Peikoff and Peter Schwartz) (1989) * Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology second edition (edited by Harry Binswanger; additional material by Leonard Peikoff) (1990) * Letters of Ayn Rand (edited by Michael S. Berliner) (1995) * Journals of Ayn Rand (edited by David Harriman) (1997) * Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors (edited by Robert Mayhew) (1998) * The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times (edited by Peter Schwartz) (1998) * Russian Writings on Hollywood (edited by Michael S. Berliner) (1999) * Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (expanded edition of The New Left; edited and with additional essays by Peter Schwartz) (1999) * The Art of Fiction (edited by Tore Boeckmann) (2000) * The Art of Nonfiction (edited by Robert Mayhew) (2001) * The Objectivism Research CD-ROM (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001) * Ayn Rand Answers (forthcoming: November 1, 2005)

References

In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the bibliography of work on Objectivism. * }} (1987 ) . '' Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, Boston: Twayne . ISBN 0-8057-7497-1 * }} (1986 ) . '' The Passion of Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, Garden City, New York: Doubleday Company . ISBN 0-385-19171-5 * }} (1998 ) . '' My Years with Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, San Francisco: Jossey Bass . ISBN 0-7879-4513-7 * }} (1962 ) . '' Who Is Ayn Rand?|1|2=]= '' } }, New York: Random House * }} (2005 ) . '' Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, New York: Overlook Duckworth . ISBN 1-58567-406-0 * }} (1999 ) . '' The New Ayn Rand Companion|1|2=]= '' } }, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press . ISBN 0-313-30321-5 * }} (1999 ) . '' Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press . ISBN 0-271-01830-5 * }} (1990 ) . '' In Defense of Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, Brookline, Massachusetts: New Beacon * }} (2004 ) . '' Ayn Rand and Song of Russia|1|2=]= '' } }, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman Littlefield . ISBN 0-8108-5276-4 * }} (1987 ) . My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir|1|2=]= , The Objectivist Forum , 8 (3) : 1-16 * }} (1987 ) . '' The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult|1|2=]= '' } }, Port Townsend, Washington: Liberty * }} (2001 ) . '' Facets of Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, Los Angeles: Ayn Rand Institute Press . ISBN 0-9625336-5-3 * }} (1995 ) . '' Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical|1|2=]= '' } }, University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press . ISBN 0-271-01440-7 * }} (1999 ) . The Rand Transcript|1|2=]= , The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies , 1 (1) : 1-26 * }} (1993 ) . The Unlikeliest Cult In History|1|2=]= , Skeptic , 2 (2) : 74-81 * }} (2005 ) . '' The Literary Art of Ayn Rand|1|2=]= '' } }, Poughkeepsie, New York: The Objectivist Center . ISBN 1-577240-70-7 * }} (2005 ) . '' The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics|1|2=]= '' } }, Dallas: Durban House . ISBN 1-930654-67-1 * }} (1999 ) . '' The Ayn Rand Cult|1|2=]= '' } }, Chicago: Open Court . ISBN 0-8126-9390-6

External links

Wikiquote-logo-en.png Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Wikisource Wikisource has original works written by or about: General information * Ayn Rand FAQ * Ayn Rand FAQ-notes * Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand * "Ayn Rand" entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy * Rand's biography * Objectivism Reference Center Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy * The Ayn Rand Institute * The Objectivist Center * The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism * ARI Watch Articles * Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars by Jeff Sharplet * The Heirs of Ayn Rand by Scott McLemee An article published in Lingua Franca which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship. Articles critical of Ayn Rand * The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult by Murray Rothbard Written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the libertarian standpoint. * The Unlikeliest Cult in History by Michael Shermer Rand's associates * Leonard Peikoff's website * Barbara Branden's website * Nathaniel Branden's website Online groups and blogs * TIA Daily Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail * Ayn Rand Admirers The Atlasphere: Member directory, dating service, columns, and news for admirers of Rand's novels * ObjectivismOnline.Net Contains forums, blogs, essays, chat room, and a wiki on Objectivism * Sense Of Life Objectivists Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists * The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans * Objectivist Blogs A list of Rand-influenced bloggers * Harry Binswanger List E-mail-based discussion group * Randex Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism * Objectivism.net Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and good links * The Objectivism Wiki * Ayn Rand 100 Tribute includes reference to a tribute album, "Concerto of Deliverance", inspired by Rand's words describing such music. * ARI Watch Seeks to differentiate positions of Ayn Rand Institute from those expressed in Rand's writings and promote the latter. Rand's writing and speeches * Anthem The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain * Atlas Shrugged Book outline * The Fountainhead Book outline * We The Living Book outline * "Philosophy: Who Needs It?" Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974 * Rand's HUAC testimony Transcript * We the Living Video outline * Rand featured on C-Span's "American Writers" RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing The template below has been proposed for deletion. See templates for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. Philosophy Alain Connes 1005366 1026514 856892 1175 34584 10581 18902 295691 22989 14527 1017816 282250 22018 30395 294185 160502 323893 23259 8625 295917 10859 34756 256390 34551 144610 1460172 240094 7184 20406 12543 104485 104482 292169 365715 104509 680168 1104849 1270068 1024131 589307 1053747 1227628 794811 54894 976305 862226 658970 39190 303137 394544 502831 1104948 435519 10475 394594 2850 13822 628515 862189 20698 22994 2042 40294 500958 61632 787827 61633 646326 205483 317485 2021 61636 387571 http://www.alainconnes.org/ http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Connes.html Alain Connes (born April 1, 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the College de France (Paris, France), IHES (Bures-sur-Yvette, France) and Vanderbilt University (Nashville, Tennessee). He is a specialist of Von Neumann algebras and succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects. The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, and differential geometry, made him emphasize Noncommutative geometry (which is also the title of his major book to date). He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982, the Crafoord Prize in 2001 and the gold medal of the CNRS in 2004. See cyclic homology, factor (functional analysis), Higgs boson, C*-algebra, M Theory, Groupoid, Jean Louis Loday.

External links

* Alain Connes Official Web Site * Alain Connes Biography Allan Dwan 1009378 1003586 955777 1111278 1111321 1045947 2517284 2918490 2279 2568230 8850 171651 5135 10571 506181 64646 31882 6886 189204 89126 5407 34605 53849 172501 1836516 18823 55409 172496 26171 70318 172439 804602 204817 172380 34659 180426 108136 105776 1089042 2179813 902267 154699 2557050 472897 2381687 182797 14622 http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0245385/ Allan Dwan (April 3, 1885 December 21, 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter. Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, his family moved to the United States when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in Chicago, Illinois. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association. Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies, he directed fellow Canadian, Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 Robin Hood. Following the introduction of the talkies, in 1937 he directed child-star Shirley Temple in Heidi and Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm the following year. Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office smash, The Sands of Iwo Jima. His last movie was in 1961. Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last "discovered" great director from the Classic Hollywood Era. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California. Allan Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood.

Selected films

As director: *Manhattan Madness (1916) *Fairbanks Fine Arts (1916) *Fairbanks Fragments (1916-1918) also screenwriter *Robin Hood (1922) *The Iron Mask (1929) *Heidi (1937) *Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel (1938) *Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938) *The Three Musketeers (1939) *The Gorilla (1939) *Young People (1940) *Look Who's Laughing (1941) also producer *Friendly Enemies (1942) *Around the World (1943) also producer *Up in Mabel's Room (1944) *Abroad With Two Yanks (1944) *Getting Gertie's Garter (1945) also screenwriter *Brewster's Millions (1945) *Driftwood (1947) *Calendar Girl (1947) *Northwest Outpost (1947) also associate producer *Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) *Montana Belle (1952) *Silver Lode (1954) *Passion (1954) *Cattle Queen of Montana (1954) *Tennessee's Partner (1955) *Pearl of the South Pacific (1955) *Escape to Burma (1955) *Slightly Scarlet (1956) *The Restless Breed (1957) *Enchanted Island (1958) See also: Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood

External link

* Allan Dwan at the Internet Movie Database Economy of Algeria 1577554 1161097 2107063 2373021 1356778 61034 33873 12594 35524 38286 170584 34553 36163 31741 23195 22131 20381 9550 67729 31882 14532 10581 26667 5135 3343 11867 244908 354097 35502 13257 358 34669 15251 34663 1011 34647 932079 34658 34636 34548 21760 34551 9317 627 6700 884437 36858 37994 46573 36813 10843 52136 36806 863 22479 30942 57893 87598 490147 75820 223504 32961 34701 167276 235436 810266 28710 1154940 307491 2392291 57659 14734 17747 34420 125293 60372 898 38019 23690 1492681 701220 1459574 304011 19054 233022 27558 27712 325363 34635 29643 5307 13645 38431 46574 12436 37694 22478 53946 604727 31717 5987 166346 14647 64704 14668 16689 17805 21388 25191 27273 31838 32457 http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html#top http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html In the economy of Algeria the hydrocarbons sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the International Monetary Fund in April 1994 and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended April 30, 1998. Some progress on economic reform, Paris Club debt reschedulings in 1995 and 1996, and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since 1999. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in 1999 to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in 1999-2000 and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the November 10, 2001 floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for 2002-03 more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards. President Bouteflika has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy. The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the European Union; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the World Trade Organization.

Agriculture

Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km ) are devoted to the cultivation of cereal grains. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of French rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of artesian wells in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, wheat, barley and oats are the principal cereals. A great variety of vegetables and of fruits, especially citrus products, is exported. A considerable amount of cotton was grown at the time of the United States' Civil War, but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of cotton is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of crin vegetal (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The olive (both for its fruit and Petroleum) and tobacco are cultivated with great success. Algeria also exports figs, dates, esparto grass, and cork.

Wine Production

Throughout Algeria the soil of favours the growth of vines. The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government, :"can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste." The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in France were attacked by phylloxera that the export of wine from Algeria became significant. In 1883, despite precautionary measures, Algerian vineyards were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km ) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km ), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m ) of wine. Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km ), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m ). The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km ), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m ). By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country. Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m ).

Fishing

Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry. Fish caught are principally sardines, bonito, smelt and sprats. Fresh fish are exported to France, dried and preserved fish to Spain and Italy. Coral fisheries are found along the coast from Bona to Tunis.

Minerals

Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many iron, lead and zinc, copper, calamine, antimony and mercury mines. The most productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in Algiers; immense phosphate beds were discovered near Tebessa in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked near Setif, Guelma and Ain Beida. There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, onyx and beautiful white and red marbles. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near Kleber, some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. Salt is collected on the margins of the chotts.

Foreign Trade

Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000. In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000. From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000. About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except sugar, have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are petroleum and natural gas. The reserves are mostly in the Eastern Sahara; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the 1990s. Other significant exports are sheep, oxen, and horses; animal products, such as wool and skins; wine, cereals (rye, barley, oats), vegetables, fruits (chiefly figs and grapes for the table) and seeds, esparto grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly olive oil), iron ore, zinc, natural phosphates, timber, cork, crin vegetal and tobacco. The import of wool exceeds the export. Sugar, coffee, machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far the greater part comes from France. The British imports consist chiefly of coal, cotton fabrics and machinery.

Exports

Algeria trades most extensively with France and Italy, in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and Spain.

Statistics

Reference

* CIA World Factbook :See also : Algeria Algeria 713005 742730 1803338 1927192 413616 455561 219116 234540 249957 803 181337 1644 67577 193178 325218 380664 410270 25536 385658 393714 62450 10581 15861 34717 72028 69058 35984 128608 79370 261460 2694428 12594 64489 485118 695403 5665 1356778 15403 30890 47548 525730 143276 15422 1111916 5770 21714 588 27421 30188 17633 21373 19127 19179 19291 33220 2124919 14538 2185 48132 38687 14113 55457 44875 6555 75459 25816 25507 4016 16209 3718 34740 1234207 7245 632373 643709 2140108 346016 26961 56176 645486 29402 708770 802377 1649 49867 2290188 2997518 1289726 1289691 26667 22278 507869 50767 268401 268770 31882 35071 413671 103054 335804 351151 34982 403406 12720 82430 802071 410344 410349 34703 403399 410339 1526860 300210 40231 220636 24406 36565 2974156 625041 2155836 412352 954036 56242 1061774 1101837 1275569 179458 533162 1492618 1126649 1492624 1304276 1347374 1492626 440188 1492632 468607 1492636 1492640 1492637 1492638 550463 1459574 573668 1469900 1492649 1275540 1492657 19943 39245 1492659 1492660 145335 1459563 1492663 1492664 1492674 701220 624277 1492672 1492673 573663 1492681 1492682 1034311 1492683 1462858 515053 40229 211183 47431 325363 5999 471607 349 13257 22131 23195 932079 34548 34551 9317 8098 19541 944942 1458526 10597 263257 1138189 1138209 853294 1907465 1789 95185 2030 1251502 199169 57659 171032 1279575 201685 243022 171100 183320 884942 2170632 3003057 1424498 355643 203256 40228 57598 67579 401593 157065 68253 57600 57599 1034064 1191303 156658 337619 1779040 701 3459 3464 3470 3472 5447 5458 5478 5488 5403 76762 346777 57744 8040 9346 9366 9376 187749 12027 65656 12067 12176 12186 188171 17781 17791 18964 19088 19201 19301 21292 21383 25645 70082 27278 27288 27308 27358 51425 68854 27451 30118 30138 31816 61472 34415 34399 214529 3468 5717 6443 20226 19898 19211 86772 26945 19006 738 3463 5573 5593 12108 14685 14532 17771 19137 19261 27289 27338 27471 354097 http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=36_42_N_3_13_E_type:country(2,381,740) http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html#People http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en http://www.el-mouradia.dz http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm http://www.algeria-us.org/ http://allafrica.com/algeria/ http://www.elkhabar.com/html/pageAnglais.html http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp http://algerie.el-annabi.com |- align=center style="vertical-align: top;" | style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | Motto: (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people |- align=center style="vertical-align: top;" | style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | Anthem: Kassaman (Qassamman Bin Nazilat Il-Mahiqat) ( Arabic: We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys) |- align=center | colspan="2" style="background:#ffffff;" | Location of Algeria |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Capital | Algiers 36°42 N 3°13 E |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Largest city | Algiers |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Official languages | Arabic |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | Government President Prime Minister | style="white-space: nowrap;" | Democratic Republic Abdelaziz Bouteflika Ahmed Ouyahia |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | Independence ? | From France July 5, 1962 |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Area Total Water (%) | 2,381,740 km (11th) ? |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | Population 2005 est. ? census Density | 32,531,853 (37th) ? 13.3/km (?) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="white-space: nowrap;" | GDP (PPP) Total Per capita | ? estimate ? (?) ? (?) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Currency | style="white-space: nowrap;" | Algerian dinar ( DA ) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Time zone Summer (DST) | CET (UTC+1) ? (UTC?) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Internet TLD | .dz |- style="vertical-align: top;" | Calling code | +213 |- style="vertical-align: top;" | colspan=2 | |} The People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (Arabic: الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية) , or Algeria (Arabic: الجزائر), is a presidential state in north Africa, and the second largest country on the African continent, Sudan being the largest. It is bordered by Tunisia in the northeast, Libya in the east, Niger in the southeast, Mali and Mauritania in the southwest, and Morocco as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, Western Sahara, in the west. Constitutionally, it is defined as an Islamic, Arab, and Amazigh (Berber) country. The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of Algiers, from the Arabic word al-jaz ir, which translates as the islands, referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525.

History

Main article: History of Algeria Algeria has been inhabited by Berbers (or Amazigh) since at least 10,000 BC. From 1000 BC on, the Carthaginians became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably Numidia, and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the Roman Republic in 200 BC. As the western Roman Empire collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the Vandals took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I. The Byzantine Empire then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the Arabs in the 8th century. Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as Kusayla and Kahina, the Berbers adopted Islam en masse, but almost immediately expelled the Caliphate from Algeria, establishing an Ibadi state under the Rustamids. Having converted the Kutama of Kabylie to its cause, the Shia Fatimids overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their Zirid vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted Sunnism, they sent in a populous Arab tribe, the Banu Hilal, to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the Arabization of the countryside. The Almoravids and Almohads, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three successor states, the Algerian Zayyanids, Tunisian Hafsids, and Moroccan Merinids. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Spain started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the Ottoman Empire. Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by Khair ad-Din and his brother Aruj, who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the corsairs; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the First and Second Barbary War with the United States. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as Emir Abdelkader made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last Tuareg were conquered. Constantine, Algeria 1840 Meanwhile, however, the French had made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the Fourth Republic. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called pieds-noirs), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians remained outside of French law, and possessed neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population. In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched the guerrilla Algerian War of Independence; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing the French out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 pieds-noirs, as well as 91,000 harkis (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year. Algeria's first president, the FLN leader Ahmed Ben Bella, was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, Houari Boumédiènne in 1965. The country then enjoyed almost 25 years of relative stability under the one-party socialism of Boumedienne and his successors. In December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Chadli Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent Algerian Civil War. More than 100,000 people were killed, often by unprovoked massacres and bombings of civilians by muslim guerrilla groups such as the Armed Islamic Group.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Algeria The head of state is the President of the republic, who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has universal suffrage. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the Prime Minister who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian parliament is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years. Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-Saharan Africa, and was a leader in the Non-Aligned Movement. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring Morocco, the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's claim to portions of eastern Algeria around Touat (which led to a brief war in 1963), and Algeria's support for the Polisario, a clandestine armed group seeking independence for the Moroccan-ruled Western Sahara, which it hosts within its borders in the city of Tindouf. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the Algerian Civil War, have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the Maghreb Arab Union, nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors.

Provinces

Main article: Provinces of Algeria Algeria is divided into 48 wilayas (provinces):-

Geography

Main article: Geography of Algeria Map of Algeria with cities Algeria Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the Tell, is fertile. Further south is the Atlas mountain range and the Sahara desert. Algiers, Oran and Constantine are the main cities. Algeria's climate is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to sirocco, a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer. See also: Extreme points of Algeria

Economy

Algiers coast Algerian coins Main article: Economy of Algeria The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in Petroleum reserves. Algeria s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the Paris Club. Algeria s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the European Union that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Algeria About 90% of the Algerians live in the northern, coastal area, although there are about 1.5 million people living in the southern desert most of them in oases. Ninty-nine percent of the population is classified as Arab-Berber, all of which are muslim; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%. note: almost all Algerians are Berber in origin, not Arab; the minority who identify themselves as Berber live mostly in the mountainous region of Kabylie east of Algiers; the Berbers are also Muslim but identify with their Berber rather than Arab cultural heritage.

Language

Main article: Languages of Algeria The official language is Arabic, spoken natively in dialectal form ("Darja") by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak Berber, officially a national language. French is widely known from schools, but is very rare as a native language.

Culture

mosque in Algiers Main article: Culture of Algeria Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib and Kateb Yacine, while Assia Djebar is widely translated. As early as Roman times, Apuleius, born in Mdaourouch, was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization, while Augustine of Hippo was born in Annaba, and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by Islam, the main religion. The works of the Sanusi family in precolonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Algerian musical genre best known abroad is raï, a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as Khaled and Cheb Mami. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal chaabi style remains more popular, with such stars as El Hadj El Anka or Dahmane El Harrachi, while the tuneful melodies of Kabyle music, exemplified by Idir,Ait Menguellet or Salah Sadaoui, have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, Andalusi music, brought from Al-Andalus by Morisco refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns.

Miscellaneous topics

* Archeology of Algeria * Communications in Algeria * Foreign relations of Algeria * List of Algeria-related topics * List of cities in Algeria * List of sovereign states * Military of Algeria * Transportation in Algeria * Algerian Civil War * JJ72 have a single called Algeria

Directories

* Yellow Pages of Algeria

External links

Commons:Category Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Algeria}} Wiktionary-logo-en.png Look up Algeria on Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Government * El Mouradia official presidential site (in French and Arabic) * National People's Assembly official parliamentary site * The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC News * allAfrica.com - Algeria news headline links * El Khabar * The North Africa Journal business news Overviews * CIA World Factbook - Algeria * Library of Congress - Country Study: Algeria data as of December 1993 Tourism *Travel guide to from Wikitravel Other * Algeria Watch human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French) * Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing Analysis on the public referendum held 29 September 2005 by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally * all City of Algéria Characters in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 791877 339 568 368 362 364 195702 365 21663 1688469 22199 22939 743524 38223 155134 3753 849 108471 1065507 11961 67256 13456 24113 13716 195761 mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Characters in Ayn Rand's novel, Atlas Shrugged. Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.

Balph Eubank

Called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people want to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the Looters. Balph Eubank appears in section 161.

Ben Nealy

A railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in section 171.

Bertram Scudder

Editorial writer for the magazine The Future. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called The Octopus. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Bertram Scudder appears in section 161.

Betty Pope

A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in sections 142 and 161.

Brakeman

An unnamed employee working on the Taggart Comet train. Dagny Taggart hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny points out that Richard Halley only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece. Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs Taggart Transcontinental. It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in sections 112 and 113.

Cherryl Brooks

Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a "good" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel.

Claude Slagenhop

The president of political organization Friends of Global Progress (which is supported by Philip Rearden), and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Claude Slagenhop appears in section 161.

Cuffy Meigs

A Looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of Taggart Transcontinental, and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and wears a military uniform. The "intellectual heir" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of Project X.

Dagny Taggart

The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Dagny appears in sections 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161.

Dan Conway

The middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in sections 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148.

Dick McNamara

A contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line and who is hired to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in sections 133 and 141.

Eddie Willers

Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with Dagny Taggart. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in sections 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152.

Ellis Wyatt

The head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in sections 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152.

Francisco d'Anconia

One of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the San Sebastian Mines, and a childhood friend and first love of Dagny Taggart. Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at Patrick Henry University, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for d'Anconia Copper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father. When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the Strikers and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the Looters could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia. According to Adam Reed ( Who is Francisco D'Anconia?), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself). Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in sections 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life.

Hank Rearden

One of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged. He is the founder of Rearden Steel and the inventor of Rearden Metal. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and an elderly woman known only as Rearden's Mother, all of whom he supports. Gwen Ives is his secretary. The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with Francisco d'Anconia, who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in Galt's Speech. Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's theory of sex. Lillian Rearden cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. Dagny Taggart clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in sections 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131.

Hugh Akston

Identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in section 161.

James Taggart

The President of Taggart Transcontinental and a leader of the Looters. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister Dagny Taggart to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of nihilism. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in sections 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in sections 146 and 148.

John Galt

*The question "Who is John Galt?" is asked repeatedly throughout Atlas Shrugged. Late into the book we learn that John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the Strikers. He is also the same character as the Mystery Worker. The son of an Ohio garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at Patrick Henry University at age 16. There he befriended Francisco d'Anconia and Ragnar Danneskjöld, all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy. They were the cherished students of the brillant scientist Robert Stadler and the brillant philsopher Hugh Akston. After graduating, Galt became an engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Works where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like Ellis Wyatt, he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful labor strike, proclaiming his promise to halt the world. He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government). Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and banker Midas Mulligan, had created their own society a secret enclave of rational individualists living in "Galt's Gulch", a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains. Dagny accidentally finds the town and a shocked John Galt by crash-landing a light aircraft while pursuing Quentin Daniels. Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, "Who is John Galt?", it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. Dagny Taggart hears a number of John Galt Legends before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them. :There is a clothing store in Vail, Colorado called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt?"

Lillian Rearden

The wildly unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a Moocher who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted. Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's Theory of sex. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In section 161 she indicates that she abhors Francisco d'Anconia, because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in sections 121 and 161.

The Looters

A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as "James Taggart and his friends". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs.

Midas Mulligan

A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there.

The Moochers

A group of characters, similar to the Looters, who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include Lillian Rearden, Philip Rearden, and Hank Rearden's mother. It has been suggested that the term "mooch" received its beginning in this novel and is actually intended to be spelled "mouch," referring to infamous character of Wesley Mouch.

Mort Liddy

A hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in section 161.

Mr. Mowen

The president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in section 171.

Mystery Worker

A menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to mysteriously disappear. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in section 133.

The unnamed newsstand owner

He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with Dagny Taggart when she comes by. On one occasion, in section section 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by Hugh Akston, but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In Atlas Shrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.

Orren Boyle

The head of Associated Steel and a friend of James Taggart. He is one of the Looters. He is an investor in the San Sebastian Mines. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152.

Owen Kellogg

Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman Mr. Mowen. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in sections 112 and 114.

Paul Larkin

An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the Looters. In section 121 Larkin visits Philadelphia to warn Hank Rearden of possible trouble from Washington. In section 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in sections 121 and 132.

Philip Rearden

The younger brother of Hank Rearden, and a Moocher. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups. He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job would be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in sections 121 and 161.

Quentin Daniels

An enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to "Galt's Gulch"

Ragnar Danneskjöld

One of the original Strikers. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from Norway, the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended Patrick Henry University and became friends with John Galt and Francisco d'Anconia, while studying under Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the United States to Europe. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in Delaware Bay. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in Norway, Portugal, Turkey. According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, Italic textHans of IcelandItalic text, the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although "skjöld" means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in section 161.

Rearden's mother

Unnamed in Atlas Shrugged, she is a Moocher who lives with her son Hank Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. Rearden's mother appears in section 121.

Richard Halley

Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In section 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in sections 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in section 152.

Dr. Robert Stadler

A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: Project X.

Dr. Simon Pritchett

The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a Looter. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe, and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in section 161.

The Strikers

People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is John Galt. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg.

Mr. Thompson

The "Head of the State," which essentially means that he's the President of the United States, though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of Atlas Shrugged all Presidents and Prime Ministers are refered to simply as "Head of the State" and "Mr. ____." This is because countries have been standardized as "People's States" which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these "People's States." One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President Harry S. Truman.

Wesley Mouch

A member of the Looters and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the country's economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in section 131 and is mentioned in section 161.

See also

*Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged Technology in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 1891719 339 849 847 8540 172121 25426 30003 29831 163395 568 716253 368328 21435 47702 443373 359 27058 14734 125293 368 Technology in Atlas Shrugged, Ayn Rand's novel includes a variety of technological products and devices. In addition to real world technology (aircraft, automobiles, diesel engines, phonograph records, radios, telephones, television, and traffic signals) Atlas Shrugged also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions. Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.

Fictional technology

Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Gulch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic death ray ("Project X"), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by static electricity, palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a nerve-induction torture machine.

Traffic Signals

Early on, the book mentions the "screech" of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today.

Project X

Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a "death ray", and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge.

Rearden Metal

Rearden metal is a fictitious metal alloy invented by Hank Rearden. It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron. It is described as greenish-blue. Among its ingredients are iron and copper. Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it. Finally, Dagny Taggart places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying Rio Norte Line. The first thing made from Rearden metal is a bracelet. Rearden metal is mentioned in sections 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161. Companies in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 834246 339 21882 568 359 195702 362 368 195761 25715 Companies in Atlas Shrugged, the Ayn Rand novel, generally, are divided into two groups, thse that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In Atlas Shrugged men who give their names to their companies all become Strikers in due time.

Amalgamated Switch and Signal

A company run by Mr. Mowen and located in Connecticut. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. Dagny Taggart orders Rearden Metal switches from them. Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in section 171.

Associated Steel

Associated Steel is the company owned by Orren Boyle. The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131 and 171.

Ayers Music Publishing Company

Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of Richard Halley. Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of Halley's Fifth Concerto. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in section 114.

Barton and Jones

The company, located in Denver, that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the Rio Norte Line. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and James is mentioned in section 171.

d'Anconia Copper

A copper and mining company founded by Sebastian d'Anconia in Argentina during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time Francisco d'Anconia heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in sections 152 and 171.

Hammond Motors

A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. Hank Rearden buys a Hammond on his trip to Colorado in section 171.

Incorporated Tool

A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in section 171.

Phoenix-Durango

The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by Dan Conway that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when Ellis Wyatt revives the economy of Colorado and Taggart Transcontinental's Rio Norte Line fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, James Taggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of Colorado with the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152.

Rearden Coal

A business founded by Hank Rearden prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in section 121.

Rearden Limestone

A business founded by Hank Rearden prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in section 121.

Rearden Ore

The first business founded by Hank Rearden. It is mentioned in section 121.

Rearden Steel

A company founded by Hank Rearden about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As Dagny Taggart struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162.

Summit Casting

A company in Illinois under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting Dagny Taggart to fly to Chicago and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in section 171.

Taggart Transcontinental

The fictional railroad run by Dagny Taggart. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by Nathaniel Taggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, From Ocean to Ocean. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the Taggart Comet which runs from New York to San Francisco, and which has never been late.

United Locomotive Works

An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in sections 133 and 141.

Wyatt Oil

The oil company run by Ellis Wyatt. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in Colorado, but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned Colorado into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's Rio Norte Line to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming Colorado economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted James Taggart to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of Colorado. Afterwards, Dagny Taggart has to rebuild the Rio Norte Line so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of Colorado, and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in sections 111, 132 and 171. Concepts in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 568 9897 28307 339 359 5211 178465 228776 336 50024 37697 60094 23927 233068 628 36681 Some of the important concepts discussed in Atlas Shrugged include the Sanction of the Victim and the Theory of Sex.

Sanction of the Victim

The Sanction of the Victim is defined as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil, to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the 'sin' of creating values." The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked? When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction. The concept is apparently original in the thinking of Ayn Rand and is foundational to her moral theory. She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it. To quote from Galt's Speech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it." Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood. Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is. The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim. The first person to grasp the concept is John Galt, who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction. We first glimpse the concept in section 121 when Hank Rearden feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him. In section 146 the principle is stated explicitly by Dan Conway: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."

Theory of Sex

In rejecting the traditional Christian altruist moral code, Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a logical implication of altruism. Rand introduces a theory of sex in Atlas Shrugged which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract. One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values. Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values. Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning. People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values. That our sexual desire is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory. However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete. For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make family undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats "family" as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, promiscuity, prostitution, and an endless round-robin of "values-driven" sexual relationships would become inevitable. From this viewpoint, one could say that Aldous Huxley portrayed the ideal sexual state: Brave New World features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented "values", which naturally include a code of sexual desirability. Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of Hank Rearden with Lillian Rearden and Dagny Taggart, and later with Dagny Taggart and John Galt. Other important illustrations of this theory are found in: Section 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with Francisco d'Anconia. Section 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex. Things in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 912233 339 568 25715 359 364 195702 365 34197 108610 195761 2178 59550 This is a list of general items in Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged. Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.

Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule

The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the National Alliance of Railroads in section 145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads. The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country. It was crafted by Orren Boyle as a favor for James Taggart, with the purpose of driving the Phoenix-Durango out of Colorado.

Bracelet

The very first thing made from Rearden Metal is a bracelet. The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's Theory of Sex. The bracelet symbolizes the value created by Hank Rearden's long struggle to invent Rearden Metal. When he gives it to Lillian Rearden as a present in section 121; she says, "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails." However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos. In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary. She makes fun of it all night long, and when Dagny Taggart hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it. Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing. Dagny denies the offer. The bracelet appears in sections 121 and 161.

Cub Club

A night club in New York. When Francisco d'Anconia returns to New York in section 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.

Equalization of Opportunity Bill

A bill designed by the Looters that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one. It is aimed primarily at Hank Rearden, who uses Rearden Ore to guarantee Rearden Steel with a supply of iron ore. By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills. The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy. The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in section 161.

Galt's Gulch

A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society. Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters. Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight. He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance. Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society. Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit. We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis. The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention. We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation. Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley. The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics. The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable X-ray machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc. Rand's description of Galt's Gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband Frank O'Connor took to Ouray, Colorado while researching Colorado for the novel.

Halley's Fifth Concerto

Richard Halley disappeared after he had written only four concertos. In section 112, Dagny Taggart, an enthusiastic fan of Halley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a brakeman on the Taggart Comet. She asks him what it is; he responds Halley's Fifth Concerto. When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was. Later, Dagny calls Mr. Ayers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto. Ayers says Halley did not. Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in sections 112, 114 and 152.

Halley's Fourth Concerto

The last thing Richard Halley wrote before he disappeared. It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary. Dagny Taggart listened to this song in section 141. It is mentioned in section 152.

Heaven's In Your Backyard

A film. Mort Liddy wrote the score, using a bastardized version of Halley's Fourth Concerto. It is mentioned in section 161.

John Galt Legends

Since everyone across the country is asking, "Who is John Galt?", it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers. A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically. Legend 1 (section 161): A spinster at Lillian Rearden's party tells Dagny the story. John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of Atlantis while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world. The site was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him. The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice. The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him. Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero. Described in these terms, it is the same as Galt's Gulch.

Moe's Delicatessen

A delicatessen in New York. When Francisco d'Anconia returns to New York in section 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.

National Alliance of Railroads

An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good. Orren Boyle has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule, which uses a string of pretenses to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of Colorado. The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in sections 131, 145 and 146.

National Council of Metal Industries

An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. James Taggart has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt Rearden Steel and help Associated Steel. The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in section 131.

Patrick Henry University

The most prestigious university in the world. It was attended by John Galt, Francisco d'Anconia, and Ragnar Danneskjold, where they met and became friends. Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler taught there. It is located in Cleveland.

Rio Norte Line

A branch of Taggart Transcontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas. It is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 133, 141, 146, 147 and 148.

Rockdale Station

A station on the Taggart Transcontinental line, located five miles from the Taggart estate and overlooking the Hudson River. It was the site of Dagny Taggart's first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16. It appears in section 152.

San Sebastian

A community built to house the workers of the San Sebastian Mines and their families. As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two. Only the church was built to last. It is mentioned in section 152.

San Sebastian Line

A branch of Taggart Transcontinental that serves the San Sebastian Mines in Mexico. The mines were developed by Francisco d'Anconia and attracted significant investments from James Taggart and Orren Boyle, who assumed Francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner. The San Sebastian Line is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion. When it is nationalized in section 142, it is referred to as the San Sebastian Railroad. It is mentioned in sections 114, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143 and 152.

San Sebastian Mines

San Sebastian Mines is a copper mining project in Mexico founded by Francisco d'Anconia and named after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia. Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise. Investors include James Taggart and Orren Boyle. Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of Taggart Transcontinental, the San Sebastian Line, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project. When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was. When Taggart tells Francisco he considers the Mines a rotten swindle (section 161), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines. He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world. The world says it is evil to pursue a profit he got no profit from the worthless mines. The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine. The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence. The world says need is more important than ability he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability. In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole. The San Sebastian Mines appear in sections 111, 131, 132, 142, 151, 152 and 161.

Taggart Building

A skyscraper in New York, the headquarters of Taggart Transcontinental, and the location of the Taggart Terminal.

Taggart Comet

The Taggart Comet is Taggart Transcontinental's flagship train. It runs from New York to San Francisco, and has never been late. The Taggart Comet appears in sections 112, 113 and 152.

The Future

See Bertram Scudder.

The Heart Is A Milkman

The Heart is a Milkman is a novel being written by Balph Eubank. It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration. Eubank says he will dedicate it to Lillian Rearden. It is mentioned in section 161.

The Octopus

See Bertram Scudder.

The Vulture Is Molting

A best-selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "A penetrating study of a businessman's greed. A fearless revelation of man's depravity." The book is mentioned in section 141 as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depresses Dagny Taggart with its baseness.

Wayne-Falkland Hotel

A luxurious hotel in New York, it is considered the best hotel left in the world. It is where Francisco d'Anconia stays when he is in town. It was also the scene of Dagny Taggart's debut ball when she was seventeen. The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in sections 141, 151 and 152.

Wyatt Oil Fields

The Wyatt Oil Fields are in Colorado. They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by Ellis Wyatt. This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of Colorado. The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in sections 111 and 161. Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged 1099292 568 11961 47428 359 42146 308 118474 15191 18836 21632 76747 45811 32610 195702 368 144246 39057

Atlas

As told in Atlas Shrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders. But in the Greek Myths, the Titan Atlas stands on the earth and holds up the sky. In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round. Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.

Character names

Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance. (See also Characters in Atlas Shrugged.) When asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag, tag, den, stad, Rand said that she just liked those sounds. *Ragnar Danneskjold - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful. (However, note "skjold" means shield, not gold.) However, the hero of Victor Hugo's first novel, Hans of Iceland becomes the first of the Counts of Dannesjköld. In the 1970's, Rand told Marsha Familaro Enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were Counts of Dannesjköld. *Robert Stadler - sounds like the German word for state, Staat. Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research. *Francisco d'Anconia - Rand's husband was Frank O'Connor. *John Galt - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental. Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'. The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial this would not be possible with a long, awkward name.

Crime

Common street crime is conspicuously absent in Atlas Shrugged. Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.

Historical figures and events

Atlas Shrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned. *Aristotle (section 152): Francisco d'Anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover. *Dark Ages (section 161): Ragnar Danneskjold's piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages. *Inquisition (section 152): Sebastian d'Anconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition. *Middle Ages (section 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages. *Nero (section 152): Francisco d'Anconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero. *Patrick Henry (section 152): The eponym of Patrick Henry University. *Vikings (section 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.

Humor

In section 152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion. In section 152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church. "The church, I think, will stand. They'll need it," he quips. Since the other things are things of value houses, roads, etc. it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value. Almost every nation in the world except the United States is referred to as "The People's State of...", and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States. In conversation, people casually refer to them as "The People's State of..." rather than just, say, France or Norway. It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation we don't call Canada "The Dominion of Canada" or Germany "The Federal Republic of Germany" so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit.

Lying

The sympathetic characters of Atlas Shrugged do not tell lies. Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out. There are a few exceptions. *In section 112 Brakeman tells Dagny Taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it. *In section 141 Francisco d'Anconia tells the press he came to New York because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen. *In section 151 we learn Dagny Taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that Francisco had given her. This was the only lie she ever told. *In section 152 Dagny Taggart asks Francisco if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. He is evasive and tells her that Halley has stopped writing. Is this a lie? *In section 161, Hank Rearden tells Dagny that he was the one who invited Bertram Scudder to the Rearden's anniversary party. It was actually Lillian who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it. *In part 2/chapter 9, Eddie Willers tells Dagny Taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions. In fact, Eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with Hank Rearden.

People's States

Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the United States, is referred to as a "People's State". These include: * The People's State of England * The People's State of France * The People's State of India * The People's State of Mexico * The People's State of Norway * The People's State of Portugal * The People's State of Turkey The leaders of these countries are given the title the "Head of the People's State," and called "Mr._____" (or "Senor"____). The President of the United States is refered to as "Mr. Thompson" and called the "Head of the State," which seems to imply the US is on its way to becoming a People's State as well.

Religion

In section 152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the San Sebastian Mines after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia, a man they both honor deeply. This, to Dagny, is blasphemy the only kind of blasphemy she understands.

Social classes

Rand is sometimes called an elitist. This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness throughout Atlas Shrugged, virtue is equated with creative ability. It is, however, worth noting that in Atlas Shrugged, there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as author surrogate characters (most notably Dagny Taggart); conversely, all of the characters which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt, and usually actively destructive. Compare to the real world, where scientists, inventors, artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions. Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of Atlas Shrugged. Among the heroes, John Galt and Hank Rearden are from working class backgrounds, while Dagny Taggart and Francisco d'Anconia are from wealthy families. Among the villains, Fred Kinnan is from a working class background, while James Taggart and Betty Pope are from wealthy families. Atlas Shrugged 767829 1099292 21882 339 34606 31882 1837 22256 155134 23626 165451 258724 11054 26847 5277 61032 178465 8363 5211 195702 103793 34613 34558 180203 424984 234527 362 21785 37606 5268 164656 29831 25426 53136 71024 5489 744 146872 359 195761 364 365 368 369 36163 180464 356670 285505 188436 11884 14708 15606 21704 22975 26825 26689 29798 38214 174653 14573 414331 15781 437523 152717 2030477 180143 8198 228211 301502 21576 10310 312195 32442 17711 30903 155638 9469 4163 6824 331689 http://www.timbro.se/rand/ http://www.cix.co.uk/~morven/atlas.html http://www.strangewords.com/archive/ayn.html http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkatshrg.rvw http://www.pierssen.com/cfile/objectivist.htm http://atlasshruggednovel.blogspot.com http://kamita.com/misc/illuminatus/illuminatus.html http://www.spudworks.com/article/66/2/ http://www.modernhumorist.com/mh/0101/rand/ http://www.mskousen.com/Books/Articles/shrugged.html http://www.angryflower.com/atlass.gif http://www.theonionavclub.com/review.php?review_id=2733 http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/sf-history.html http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm http://www.theonionavclub.com/review.php?review_id=3036 http://www.skeptic.com/archives13.html http://www.atlassociety.org/news_atlas-movie-updated050304.asp Atlas Shrugged cover Atlas Shrugged is a novel by Ayn Rand, first published in 1957 in the USA. It is a highly philosophical and allegorical story that deals with themes of Rand's own Objectivist philosophy. Spoiler warning: Plot and/or ending details follow.

Philosophy and writing

The theme of Atlas Shrugged is that independent, rational thought is the motor that powers the world. In the book, "men of the mind" go on strike, allowing the collapse of what only they hold together a peaceful cohesiveness Rand claims that humans may create wherever forceful human interference is absent. Given no alternative, they remove themselves from the "looters." The book is rooted in Objectivism, the philosophical system founded by Rand. Rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized, and that, inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement. Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is rewarded best when private property is respected strictly. She advocated laissez-faire capitalism as the political system that is most consistent with these beliefs. These considerations make Atlas Shrugged a highly political book, especially in its portrayal of fascism, socialism and communism, or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs, as fatally flawed. However, Rand claimed that it is not a fundamentally political book, but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society. Rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world, and should be embraced. Her worldview requires a "rational" moral code. She disputes the notion that self-sacrifice is a virtue, and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a god or higher being. The book positions itself against Christianity specifically, often directly within the characters' dialogue.

Setting

Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague. In section 152, the population of New York City is given as 7 million. The historical New York City reached 7 million people in the 1930s, which might place the novel sometime after that. There are many early 20th century technologies available, but the political situation is clearly different from actual history. One interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred (or perhaps hundreds) of years in the future, implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass, a global-wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth, population growth, and indeed growth of any kind; the wars, economic depressions, and other events of the 20th century would be a distant memory to all but scholars and academicians. This would be in line with Rand's ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies. The concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of Rand's works, Anthem. All countries outside the US have become, or become during the novel, "People's States". There are many examples of early 20th century technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war advances such as nuclear weapons, helicopters, or computers. Jet planes are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology. Television is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance, while radio broadcasts are prominent. Though Rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing, she introduces some advanced, fictional inventions (e.g., sound-based weapon of mass destruction, torture device, power plant). Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged occurs in the United States. However, there are important events around the world, such as in the People's States of Mexico, Chile, and Argentina, and piracy at sea.

Plot

A section by section analysis of Atlas Shrugged is available on Wikibooks. The basic plot follows the character of Dagny Taggart, a no-nonsense railroad executive, who struggles with the frustrations of the fundamental ideological, political and economic changes happening in the world around her. Other major characters include Hank Rearden, a highly successful steel tycoon, and Francisco d'Anconia, a prodigy who is also heir to a fortune based on the copper industry. * Characters ** Minor Characters * Companies * Concepts * Places * Technology * Things * Topics of note

Film adaptation

Rights to the novel Atlas Shrugged were puchased by the Baldwin Entertainment Group in 2003 with the intent of producing a feature-length film. Company leader Howard Baldwin was quoted in September 2004 as saying "...everything is on track and [the movie] hasn’t been held up one bit.... I assure you that this will be a big movie and IT WILL GET MADE." Two works of Rand's The Fountainhead and We the Living have been adapted into movies so far.

External links

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References and further reading

Publications

* Atlas Shrugged, Ayn Rand; Signet; (September 1996) ISBN 0451191145 * Atlas Shrugged (Cliffs Notes), Andrew Bernstein; Cliffs Notes; (June 5, 2000) ISBN 0764585568 * The World of Atlas Shrugged, Robert Bidinotto/The Objectivist Center; HighBridge Company; (April 19, 2001) ISBN 156511471X * Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind (Twayne's Masterwork Studies, No. 174) Mimi Reisel Gladstein; Twayne Pub; (June 2000) ISBN 0805716386 * The Moral Revolution in Atlas Shrugged, Nathaniel Branden; The Objectivist Center; (July 1999) ISBN 1577240332 * Odysseus, Jesus, and Dagny, Susan McCloskey; The Objectivist Center; (August 1, 1998) ISBN 1577240251

Foreign translations

* German: Wer ist John Galt? (Hamburg, Germany: GEWIS Verlag), ISBN 3-932-56403-0. * Italian: La rivolta di Atlante, 2 vol. (Milano, Garzanti, 1958), Out of print. Translator: Laura Grimaldi * Japanese: 肩をすくめるアトラス 　(ビジネス社), ISBN 4-8284-1149-6. Translator: 脇坂 あゆみ. * Norwegian: De som beveger verden. (Kagge Forlag, 2000), ISBN 8-248-90083-5 (hardcover), ISBN 8-248-90169-6 (paperback). Translator: John Erik Bøe Lindgren. * Polish: Atlas Zbuntowany (Zysk i S-ka, 2004), ISBN 83-7150-969-3 (Twarda). Translator: Iwona Michałowska. * Spanish: La Rebelion de Atlas. (Editorial Grito Sagrado), ISBN 9-872-09510-8 (hardcover), ISBN 9-872-09511-6 (paperback). * Swedish: Och världen skälvde. ( Timbro Förlag, 2005), ISBN 9-175-66556-5. Translator: Maud Freccero. * Turkish: Atlas Vazgeçti. (Plato Yay nlar , 2003), ISBN 9-759-67726-1. Translator: Belk s Çorapç .

Reviews

* ^ Review from a self-proclaimed non-Libertarian * ^ Review from the Weird Bookshelf ("fine science fiction books"). * ^ Slade, Robert M. Review from the Internet Review Project (1998). * ^ A review which, while attempting to address the environmentalist issues, claims that Atlas Shrugged is a sequel to The Lord of the Rings. * ^ A Review and in-depth Chapter-by-Chapter, Motif-by-Motif, etc. analysis.

Satires and parodies

* "Telemachus Sneezed" within Robert Anton Wilson's Illuminatus! Trilogy (Search for "Taffy Rhinestone" in the former link to read the spoof.) * The Abridged Atlas Shrugged * Atlas Shr, a look at parallel universes wherein all of Ayn Rand's books are four hundred pages shorter * Oscar Shrugged, a depiction of the first film festival held in Galt's Gulch * Atlas Shrugged 2: One Hour Later, starring Bob the Angry Flower

Other works cited

* ^ Asimov, Isaac. The Naked Sun, (Doubleday, 1957), ISBN 9-997-40641-9. * ^ Borges, Jorge L. "Two Books", in Selected Non-Fictions (Penguin, 1999), ISBN 0-670-84947-2, pp. 207-10; also the Prologue to Carlyle's On Heroes, pp. 413-18. * ^ Borges, Jorge L. "From Allegories to Novels", in Selected Non-Fictions (Penguin, 1999), ISBN 0-670-84947-2, pp. 337-40. See also . * ^ Burke, James. Connections (Little, Brown; 1978), ISBN 0-316-11681-5. * ^ Chambers, Whittaker. "Big Sister Is Watching You", National Review (December 28 1957), pp. 594-96. * ^ "I Second That Emotion", Futurama episode 2ACV01, written by Patrick M. Verrone, directed by Mark Ervin, first aired November 21 1999. * ^ Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 1 (1776). Ed. by David Womersley, (Allen Lane, 1994), ISBN 0-713-99124-0. * ^ Gleick, James. Genius (Pantheon, 1992), ISBN 0-679-40836-3. * ^ Nabokov, Vladimir V. "On a Book Entitled Lolita", Anchor Review (Summer 1956). Reprinted in, e.g., Alfred Appel's The Annotated Lolita, (Vintage, 1991), ISBN 0-679-72729-9. * ^ Pynchon, Thomas R. The Crying of Lot 49, (J. B. Lippincott, 1965). * ^ Raymond, Eric S. " A Political History of SF" (November 2002). * ^ Russell, Bertrand. " Why I Am Not a Christian". * ^ Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World (Ballantine, 1996), ISBN 0-345-40946-9. See also . * ^ Shermer, Michael. " The Unlikeliest Cult in History", Skeptic 2 No. 2 (1993): pp. 74-81. Also printed in Why People Believe Weird Things (W. H. Freeman, 1997), ISBN 0-716-73090-1. Anthropology 694863 2463985 1592862 11887 682482 488341 206358 31882 24232 160313 10326 219268 5388 31717 168379 265570 75469 587539 320063 17524 570 37235 642871 53132 7528 38890 10174 1676362 679591 30758 16366 13209 23193 26713 26781 26094 340405 611323 185130 16743 47096 34700 34568 34571 166380 360039 7299 461567 7312 15316 39854 23070 9346 25614 26700 752 9236 21147 229914 11698 6310 399990 452673 1289622 9321 17526 14848 19617 26542 26743 42031 1243084 813030 225244 1750 38218 70385 266234 767317 789458 843140 816643 29678 1046243 28766 2169442 1492194 2368692 11303 6110 27763 1134468 32927 655989 912404 1043124 989749 418436 768987 310583 9223 1477062 1414102 1587785 82430 32611 1904053 56244 47643 280925 23603 27919 1924905 32926 22679 239507 6227 1564037 28151 379047 327940 631934 472872 2660477 1781619 152626 80077 38076 232415 1019726 175914 2189854 1214879 55402 63630 303486 89842 728 799397 9252 19881 24388 22921 http://www.aaanet.org/ http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/09dbb3346fc1c2a4.html http://www.antropologi.info http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20001120&c=2&s=price http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4603271.stm http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology http://www.anthrobase.com http://www.cybercultura.it Anthropology (from the Greek word , "human") consists of the study of humankind (see genus Homo). It is holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times, and with all dimensions of humanity. A primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cross-cultural comparisons. This distinction has, however, become increasingly the subject of controversy and debate, with anthropological methods now being commonly applied in single society/group studies. In the United States, 'anthropology' is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: * physical anthropology, which studies primate behavior, human evolution, and population genetics; this field is also sometimes called biological anthropology. * cultural anthropology, (called social anthropology in the United Kingdom and now often known as socio-cultural anthropology). Areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks, diffusion, social behavior, kinship patterns, law, politics, ideology, religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of fieldwork, i.e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time; * linguistic anthropology, which studies variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; and * archaeology, which studies the material remains of human societies. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of material culture, which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values. More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the humanities and critical theory, the other emphasizing the natural sciences and empirical observation.

Historical and institutional context

:Main Article: History of anthropology The anthropologist Eric Wolf once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences. Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources. However, anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. These intellectual movements in part grappled with one of the greatest paradoxes of modernity: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. As Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels observed in the 1840s: :All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new and to some confusing or disturbing cultural expressions. These are the conditions of life with which people today must contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century. Institutionally anthropology emerged from natural history (expounded by authors such as Buffon). This was the study of human beings - typically people living in European colonies. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that Lewis Henry Morgan could write monographs on both The League of the Iroquois and The American Beaver and His Works. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European chauvinism, since its relationship to imperialism was and is complex. Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology. At the time, the field was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced Polynesian migrations across the Pacific Ocean for instance - although some of them believed it originated in Egypt. Finally, the concept of race was actively discussed as a way to classify - and rank - human beings based on inherent biological difference. In the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The "sciences" seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments. The "humanities" reflected an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of history and the arts, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The "social sciences" emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains. Drawing on the methods of the natural sciences as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation" and drawing on the new theory of evolution through natural selection, they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind," conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture," which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens and perhaps all species of genus Homo from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms.

Anthropology in the U.S.

Anthropology in the United States was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing. Academic Anthropology was established by Franz Boas, who used his positions at Columbia University and the American Museum of Natural History to train and develop multiple generations of students. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government or wealthy patrons. It was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over-generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature. Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the natural sciences were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted Boas' agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. Boas's first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, and Edward Sapir. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which were first to describe Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Their focus on Native American languages also helped establish linguistics as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on Indo-European languages. The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While such works as Coming of Age in Samoa and The Chrysanthemum and the Sword remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by Ralph Linton and Mead was limited to her offices at the AMNH.

Anthropology in Britain

Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present. The two most important names in this tradition were Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Malinowski, both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the Andaman Islands was carried out in the old style, but after reading Émile Durkheim he published an account of his research (entitled simply The Andaman Islanders) which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. Malinowski, on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed ethnography and advances in methodology. His classic Argonauts of the Western Pacific advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field. Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the Commonwealth. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include The Nuer by Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard and The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi by Meyer Fortes, while well known edited volumes include African Systems of Kinship and Marriage and African Political Systems.

Anthropology in France

Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider Marcel Mauss to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of Durkheim's Annee Sociologique group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as Henri Hubert and Robert Hertz) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's Essay on the Gift was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of exchange and reciprocity. Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as surrealism and primitivism which drew on ethnography for inspiration. Marcel Griaule and Michel Leiris are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ethnologie was restricted to museums, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of folklore. Above all, however, it was Claude Lévi-Strauss who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his structuralism exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as Maurice Godelier and Francoise Heritier who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally-funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities.

Anthropology after World War Two

Before WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology. In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the natural sciences. Some, such as Lloyd Fallers and Clifford Geertz, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as Julian Steward and Leslie White focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by Marvin Harris. Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton focused on how traditional economics ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as Max Gluckman and Peter Worsley experimented with Marxism and authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including cognitive anthropology and componential analysis. Authors such as David Schneider, Clifford Geertz, and Marshall Sahlins developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Marxism became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as Reinventing Anthropology worried about anthropology's relevance. In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in Eric Wolf's Europe and the People Without History - were central to the discipline. Books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by Marshall Sahlins (again) who drew on Lévi-Strauss and Fernand Braudel to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as George Marcus and James Clifford pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. This was part of a more general trend of postmodernism that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe.

Politics of anthropology

Anthropology's traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways. Some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study. Some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects. The anthropologist, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people she or he studies while the people she or he studies gain nothing, or even lose, in exchange. An example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in Africa prior to World War II of British anthropologists and colonial forces. More recently, there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture. Other political controversies come from American anthropology's emphasis on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. As mentioned above, Boas was a well-known social reformer whose activism and anthropological teaching went hand in hand. The development of sociobiology in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as Marshall Sahlins, who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. As genetics continues to advance as a science, biological anthropologists such as Jonathan Marks have continued to refine their opposition to folk notions of race while addressing recent developments in biology. Finally, anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti-war politics. Boas publicly objected to US participation World War I and the collaboration of some anthropologists with US intelligence. In contrast, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form, including dozens who served in the Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information. In the 1950s, the American Anthropological Association provided the CIA information on the area specialities of its members, and a number of anthropologists participated in the U.S. government's Operation Camelot during the war in Vietnam. At the same time, many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the American Anthropological Association (AAA) condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations. Anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in Iraq although their was no consensus amongst all practitioners of the discipline. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called these scholarships ethically dangerous and divise For example, the British Association for Social Anthropology has condemned the CIA's Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program, which anonymously funds anthropology students at US universities in preparation for those students to spy for the United States government. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that "in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." Anthropology is the study of human diversity--diversity of body and behavior, in the past and present. Anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines: Physical anthropology--studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present. It includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time, that is human evolution, as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments. It also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives, the primates (apes and monkeys). Cultural anthropology--studies the diversity of human behavior in the present. This is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at "National Geographic" magazine or the "Discovery" channel on TV. Cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies (although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society!), live among the people there, and try as much as they can to understand how those people live. Archaeology--studies the diversity of human behavior in the past. Since it studies how people lived in the past, these people are not available for us to visit and talk to...or at least, not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past. Therefore, archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from those remnants of their culture. Linguistic anthropology--studies the diversity of human language in the past and present. While language is naturally a part of culture, it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study. Linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages, perhaps even back to the first forms of language, and how language changes over time. They are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today, how they are related, and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data. They also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture. Other sciences study humans too, of course. History, economics, psychology, sociology, even biology and chemistry can study humans. How is anthropology different? The answer is the anthropological perspective, that is, the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior. The anthropological perspective has three components: (1) cross-cultural or comparative--anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take. We are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors, trying to learn the range of humanity--all the ways that we can be human. By seeing humans in their every manifestation, and comparing those manifestations to each other, we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans. (2) holistic--anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part. We understand that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur (for example, there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities...that's just impossible!). We are also interested in how a people's cultures is connected to their environment; again, without high technology, you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic. (3) relativistic--this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective. Relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture. In other words, say, monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture, but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another. The point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical-looking behaviors or objects. In one culture, waving your hand might be a greeting, and in another culture it might be an insult. When you go to another culture, or even just interact with another culture (for example, when you are doing international business), you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do. In fact, you should assume that they don't! And you certainly should not judge or evaluate them from your own culture's perspective--if you were in a headhunter society, you might think they were horrible people for keeping heads in their house, but if they came to visit you, they might think you were a horrible person for not having heads in your house! The point is that, if we want to understand other people properly, we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them, not what they would mean to us. Meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning. This is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good. Some things are true (like the world being round) no matter what people think; those are facts. And "good" is a value judgment, so it has no place in anthropology. What we are saying in relativism is that all value judgments are made from cultural perspective, and if you were to take a different cultural perspective, you would understand or judge the exact same phenomenon in the exact opposite way! How does anthropology study culture? One other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on "fieldwork'" You cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it. At best, you could learn what other people have already discovered, but you could not learn anything new. So anthropology requires actually going to that society and living with and living like that society as much as possible. This is called participant observation (p.13). This depends crucially on making friends with people in the society, who will teach you and include you in their activities--and informant. Then, as much as possible, you will try to eat their food, speak their language, and live their lives, often actually residing with a family in that society. It is not easy work, and it is not always fun, but there is no better way to learn.

Anthropological fields and subfields

*Biological anthropology (also Physical anthropology) **Forensic anthropology **Paleoethnobotany *Cultural anthropology (also Social anthropology) **Applied anthropology **Cross-Cultural Studies **Cyber anthropology **Development anthropology **Environmental anthropology **Economic anthropology **Ecological anthropology **Ethnography **Ethnomusicology **Gender **Medical anthropology **Psychological anthropology **Political anthropology **Anthropology of religion **Public anthropology **Urban anthropology **Visual anthropology *Linguistic anthropology **Synchronic linguistics (or Descriptive linguistics) **Diachronic linguistics (or Historical linguistics) **Ethnolinguistics **Sociolinguistics *Archaeology

External links

* The American Anthropological Association Homepage - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world. * Race - a book by John Randal Baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept. * Anthropology.Info * Anthropologists as Spies - an article by David Price examining the relationship between American Anthropology and US intelligence services. * Pat Roberts Intelligence Program - a BBC article on the program * Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News - (nearly) daily updated blog * Anthrobase.com - Collection of anthropological texts * Cybercultura - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace

See also

* List of anthropologists * Important publications in anthropology Archaeology 694863 696279 11887 488341 6418 903378 584894 584921 205135 642813 1571390 4805 9630 24757 13209 143913 149685 17730 148363 2393552 37235 569 5388 17526 24232 12942 23084 645125 327940 414958 11960 12207 241048 5178 57857 26700 53132 2840582 9316 34625 34569 645042 34570 32977 588187 152626 21139 22621 29639 92818 39711 60697 6258 682482 10326 627 97358 5391 2222376 50405 4645 37671 17727 184099 2130 54166 253828 81166 23047 1737588 351220 147620 2885181 703035 610469 670499 642871 78689 101140 31882 33800 1337571 34691 375331 147625 604521 604533 1352616 606465 2785665 34604 639264 170691 160361 19877 1204580 3055384 1069446 52648 849 4786 16773 23208 6700 15022 25676 314437 275496 83060 146983 14734 17361 1150191 61580 591470 165015 9709 905011 51794 288400 220028 182783 9258 44986 489577 1007853 525538 605524 606491 2009015 169834 312707 912551 36860 328274 8946 951940 34571 50695 216965 34558 50693 640999 422290 1728479 34545 181541 14281 26833 160135 34557 608429 676645 869517 606673 160139 9236 76939 23603 735289 1326648 92463 1326558 1326566 160144 83621 3036884 300181 14814 30361 57975 723482 239038 52786 191325 313864 34655 654343 23294 30305 3014149 1961 21217 118691 34635 45281 315239 1481067 141001 52115 22219 3402 30677 33496 438668 1300367 375708 58883 571662 169506 169499 167266 1480596 2393351 http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp http://www.archaeologynews.org http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology http://www.anthropologie.net/ http://www.archaeology.org/ http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Archaeology or archeology (from the Greek words = ancient and = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human culture, understand culture history, chronicle cultural evolution, and study human behaviour and ecology, for both prehistoric and historic societies.

Ontology and definition

In the Old World, archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in antiquarianism and the study of Latin and Ancient Greek provided it with a natural affinity with the field of history. In the New World, archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human societies and is treated as one of the four subfields of Anthropology. The other subfields of anthropology supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are cultural anthropology, which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; linguistics, which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and physical anthropology, which includes the study of human evolution and physical and genetic characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, paleobotany, geography, geology, art history, and classics. Archaeology has been described as a craft that enlists the sciences to illuminate the humanities. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist Walter Taylor asserted that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information". Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In England, archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown New York City archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of writing for that culture. Historical archaeology is the study of post-writing cultures. In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with ethnography. This is the case in large parts of North America, Oceania, Siberia, and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. Kennewick_Man is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, history and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at Hadrian's Wall. Excavation is just one stage of archaeological research.

Importance and applicability

Most of human history is not described by any written records. Writing did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilisations. In contrast Homo sapiens have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution). These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities - must come from archaeology. Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of an aristocracy has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as sampling bias and differential preservation. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology.

Goals

There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information. The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground.

Academic sub-disciplines

Main article: Archaeological sub-disciplines As with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. lithic analysis, music_(archaeology), archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. landscape archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilisation (e.g. Egyptology).

Cultural resources management

Cultural resources management (CRM) (also called heritage management in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on public land or involving public funds may damage an unstudied archaeological site. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour.

Field methods

Survey

A modern archaeological project often begins with a survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later. Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution. The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits. Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to aircraft, balloons, or even kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, and thermography. Geophysical survey is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artefacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are moist below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme. Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses side-scan sonar.

Excavation

Archaeological excavation existed when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well. Similarly, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes (JCBs), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil (overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this it is usual to hand-clean the exposed area with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to produce a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

Post-excavation analysis

Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published. At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them typologically and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology), while any texts can usually be deciphered. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.

History of archaeology

Main article: History of archaeology The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible. Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts. It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including Augustus Pitt Rivers and William Flinders Petrie. This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained. During the 20th century, the development of urban archaeology and then rescue archaeology have been important factors, as has the development of archaeological science, which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain.

Archaeological theory

Main article: Archaeological theory There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as cultural, or culture, history, which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as Lewis Binford, rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as post-processual archaeology. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought, phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, Functionalism, gender-based and Feminist archaeology, and Systems theory.

Public archaeology

Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as King Solomon's Mines) and films (such as The Mummy and Raiders of the Lost Ark). Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern survey, excavation, and data processing techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as "pseudoarchaeology". Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of Indiana Jones films and Tomb Raider games as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require. In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours. Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group.

Pseudoarchaeology

Main article: Pseudoarchaeology. Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in Post-processualism. An example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His Chariots of the Gods (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

Looting

Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of hoards of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the illicit antiquities trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and often are considered to be robbing local people of their heritage. The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor Third World countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilisations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient Sinagua people of Arizona, clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the metal detector a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.

Public outreach

Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation. The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.

Descendant peoples

In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive. As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study. While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

Repatriation

A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendents. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in Kanawagi, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including beads, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional cedar and birchbark boxes lined with cedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts. Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement. (Source: Canadian Geographic Online.)

Related topics

*List of famous archaeological discoveries *List of archaeological sites sorted by country *List of archaeologists *Biblical archaeology *List of archaeological periods

External links

* Archaeology News Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters. * Excavation Sites Archaeological work and volunteer pages. * Archaeology in Popular Culture * Anthropology Resources on the Internet - Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory with over 3000 links grouped in specialised topics. * Archaeology magazine published by the Archaeological Institute of America * Archaeology Directory - Directory of archaeological topics on the web. * The 2003- Iraq War & Archaeology Information about looting in Iraq.

Further reading

* Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 076741196X. This has also been used as a source. * Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc, August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, ISBN 0759100942 * Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul G., Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice, Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. ISBN 0500284415 * Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction, Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc, December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0759100950 * Trigger, Bruce. 1990. "A History of Archaeological Thought". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338182 Agricultural science 694871 2298488 627 32654 42261 21175 186712 37335 48340 1106830 7818 8097 57885 210555 434188 2298312 45383 5999 37738 1676383 72727 37401 152772 420764 75286 55170 4502 5323 12383 2816874 26685 144068 275564 583428 17740 12562 51920 12997 45259 558685 21675 74816 12338 2409 252382 1634 186725 216260 34413 21525 59413 2208458 13435 264879 19909 239926 9223 252137 64919 50702 9630 1113929 Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. (Veterinary science is often excluded from the definition.)

Agriculture and agricultural science

The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: :Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. :Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture. Agricultural sciences include research and development on: * Production techniques (e.g., irrigation management, recommended nitrogen inputs) * Improving production in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques) * Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation) * Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modelling.

Agricultural science: a local science

With the exception of theoretical agronomy, research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of ecoregions, because it is closely linked to soil properties and climate, which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, soil characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible.

History of agricultural science

Main Article: History of agricultural science Agricultural science today is very different from what it was before about 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and phytosanitary products. However, environmental damage due to intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields (e.g., integrated pest management, waste treatment technologies, landscape architecture, genomics). New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, agrophysics, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming.

Prominent agricultural scientists

* Norman Borlaug * Luther Burbank * Louis Pasteur * Gregor Mendel * René Dumont * George Washington Carver

Agricultural science and agriculture crisis

Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing biosafety problems that may affect human health and the environment. This requires promoting good management of natural resources and respect for the environment. Economic, enviro